Chapter 2: The geology of Ethiopia and the Horn

2.1 Introduction
• Geology is an Earth science that studies the evolution of the earth, the
materials of which it is made of and the processes acting upon them.
• What are the clues for the geological understandings?
1. By using the inference from rocks and landforms.
2. By the indirect method such as:
geophysics (studying earthquake waves which can penetrate deep beneath
the surface).
geochemistry (analysis of composition of rocks)
geochronology (methods for finding the ages of rocks, from the radioactive
elements
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• The earth’s continents were once
bunched up together into a single
huge continent called Pangaea.
• It splited into Gondwanaland
(Africa is a part) and Laurasia.
• Then drifted apart to form the
present arrangement of
continents.
• Alfred Wegener proposed the
hypothesis which called the
continental drift Theory.

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What are Wegener’s principal observations ?
1) The apparent fit of the continents: the opposing coastlines of continents
often fit together.
2) Match of mountain belts, rock types: If the continents are reassembled as
Pangaea, mountains in West Africa, North America, Greenland, and Western
Europe match up.
3) Distribution of fossils: The distribution of plants and animal fossils on
separate continents forms definite linked patterns if the continents are
reassembled.
4) Paleoclimates: rocks formed 200 million years ago in India, Australia,
South America and southern Africa exhibited evidence of continental
glaciations.
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2.2. The geologic processes: endogenic and exogenic forces
Geologic
process
Endogenic Exogenic

• It is an internal geomorphic process. • It is an external geomorphic

• It include volcanic activity and tectonic process.
processes (folding, faulting, orogenesis
• It include weathering, mass transfer,
(mountain building), and epeirogenesis
(slow rising and sinking of the landmass). erosion and deposition;
• These processes result in building of • The processes act upon the volcanic
structural and volcanic features like and structural landforms by
plateaus, rift valleys, block mountains, modifying, roughening and
volcanic mountains etc. lowering them down.
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2.3. The geological time scale and age dating techniques
• The landmass of Ethiopia is the
combined effect of endogenic and
exogenic geomorphic processes.
• The geological history of the earth
is divided into:
1. Eon The largest unit (Eon)

2. The eons into Eras

3. the eras into periods
4. the periods into epochs
5. epochs into years The smallest unit (epoch)

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• Eras are given names that indicate the kind of life that existed in them:
a) The Paleozoic Era (ancient life) is the age of invertebrates
b) The Mesozoic Era (the middle life) is the age of reptiles
c) The Cenozoic Era (recent life) is the age of mammals
• These divisions differ from each other due to the relative position of land
and sea, kind of climate, and kind of animal and plant life that existed.
• Earth is formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago.
• The earliest forms of life were originated 3.5 billion years ago.
• The span of time before life appeared was termed the Precambrian Era.
• The division of time units is based on the occurrence of geological
events (e.g. mass extinctions).

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Geological time scale Techniques of knowing age of rocks
1. Relative dating (chronostratic)
• It is based on relative age relationships
(vertical/ stratigraphic position.
• Subdivisions are given names, most of which
can be recognized on the basis of fossils.
2) Absolute Dating (chronometric)
• It is known as radiometric technique
• The major techniques are:
a) Carbon-14 technique
• Upon the organism’s death, carbon-14
begins to disintegrate at a known rate.
• Carbon-14 has half-life of 5730 years
b) Potassium-Argon technique
• Geologists are able to date entire rock
samples in this way, as potassium-40 is
abundant in micas, feldspars, and hornblendes
rocks.
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2.4. Geological processes and landforms of Ethiopia and the Horn
1) Precambrian Era geologic processes
4.5 billion-600 million years
The era comprises about 5/6th (87%), of the geological time.
The major geological processes of the era were:
a)Orogeny volcanism: known for its mountain building process.
b)Denudation: reduction/wearing down of the land surface.
c)Peneplanation: refers to almost plain formation.
NB: Ethiopia rocks belonging to this Era are found beneath all other rocks,
forming the basement rocks.

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• Precambrean rocks as surface rocks covering 25% of the
land mass of Ethiopia.
• The rocks are exposed;
• In parts of northern and central Tigray,Gambella,
Benishangul-Gumuz (Metekel and Asossa), western
Gojjam, western Wellega, Illuababora, and Abay gorge,
Guji, southern Omo, and parts of southern Bale and
Borena and Eastern Hararghe

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2) Paleozoic Era (600 - 225 million years)
• The major geological processes were denudation followed by
peneplanation
• The sediments were transported southward (form continental in
Africa) and eastward (marine deposits).
• It is the era with very little rock formation in Ethiopia.

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3) Mesozoic Era (225 - 65 million years)

• It was an Era of alternate sinking and rising (epeirogenesis) of the

landmass.
• Sinking of land in the Horn of Africa and Arabian landmass started
from late Triassic and continued up to Jurassic period.
• Land sinking was followed by the transgression/ advancing of the sea
from the southeast to north-west.
• The advancing sea deposited sand over the precambrian land surface.
• The transgressing sea and Mesozoic sediments nearly covered the
whole of Ethiopia.

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Mesozoic rocks have the greatest potential for oil and gas deposits.
• Through compression, the sands and lime were compacted to form
sandstone and limestone layers, respectively.
• In the cretaceous period Horn of Africa and Ethiopia, sloly rised
regression of the sea began.
• At the end of the Mesozoic Era, three major sedimentary formations were
formed upon the Precambrian rock surface:
• InTriassic period the Adigrat/lower sandstone,
• in Jurassic period the Hintalo limestone and
• In cretaceous Upper Sandstone.

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 • Mesozoic sedimentary rocks cover 25% of the land mass of the
country.
• The Adigrat sandstone is older and thicker in the southeast and
decreases in age and thickness northwestward.
• The Upper sandstone, is thicker and younger (Upper Cretaceous)
in the Southeast, while in the Northwest it is older and thinner.

Gypsum, shale &

• The northwestern limit was as far as central Tigray, and western
slopes of Western highlands
siltstone • Old marine sediments are extensively found in the Southeast
lowlands
• Other exposures are also central Tigray, and along the gorges of
Abay and Wabishebelle rivers

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4) Cenezoic Era (65 million years- present)
• It is the most recent of the geologic Eras
• Cenozoic rocks cover 50% of the land mass
• In this Era, tectonic and volcanic activities took place.
• The geologic activities in this era are:
Tertiary period: 65 million- 2.5 million years
a. Uplifting of Arabo-Ethiopian landmass and outpouring of huge quantity of
lava.
Crustal deformation resulted in the formation of holes.
Greatest uplift was in central Ethiopia!
Solidification of lava resulted in formation of plateaus, massifs and huge
mountains..
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b) Rift Valley system formation
RV is formed by the subsidence
of a segment of the earth's crust
between two parallel
faults/cracks.
The central part of the landmass
collapsed to form the RV.
Afro- Arabian RV system
stretches from Jordan up to
Mozambique a length of 7200
km.
5,600 km is in Africa, of which
1,700 km in Eritrea and Ethiopia
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Quaternary period
• The RV is formed by the lateral movement of the crust in opposite directions
producing tensional forces.
• The central part of the landmass collapsed to form an extensive structural
depression known as the RV.
• On land, the widest part of the RV is the Afar Triangle (200-300 km).
• The Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the East African System meet and form the
triangular depression of the Afar where the Kobar Sink lies about 125 m bsl.
• The RV region of Ethiopian is the most unstable.
• There are numerous hot springs, fumorales, active volcanoes, geysers, and
• The
frequwidest part
ent earth [Link] RV is the Afar Triangle (200-300 km),
quake
where the Kobar Sink lies about 125 m bsl is found there!
• The RV region of Ethiopian is the most unstable.
• There are hot springs, active volcanoes, geysers and earthquakes.
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• The formation of the RV has the following structural (physiographic) effects:
It divides the Ethiopian Plateau into two.
It separates the Arabian landmass from African landmass.
It causes the formation of the Dead Sea, Red Sea and Gulf of Aden troughs
It creates basins and fault depressions on which the RV lakes are formed.
Quaternary volcanic eruptions and depositions
• The time is 2.5 million years – present.
• It occurred in the Pliocene-Pleistocene Epochs.
• Major geological processes of the period were:
a) volcanism and uplift of the Afar horst/Alps: resulted in the formation of an inland sea in the
Afar.
b) emission of lava took place in the RV and south of Lake Tana.
c) global climatic change:
• Climatic changes during the period caused heavy rains in tropical countries known as “pluvial
period”.
• During the pluvial period, Ethiopian lakes were larger, deeper and numerous.
• The12/11/2025
heavy rains resulted in the formation of pluvial
Ethiopian Geography deposits.
and the Horn GeES, MU 17
• Aden volcanics and faulting are more developed in the Afar region.
• The basic volcanic features of the Aden series include:
 Numerous and preserved volcanic cones, explosive craters.
Active Dubi, Erta Ale, Afrera volcanoes; Erta Ale is the most active
volcano.
Volcanic hills and mountains.
Extensive lava, lava sheets, Lava ridges, thermal springs and fumaroles.
• Pluvial period was characterized by depositions of:
• Lacustrine deposits around lakes
• Alluvial deposits on banks of rivers
• Flood plains in plateaus and foothills.
• The quaternary deposits are found in the RV(Afar and Lakes Region),
Baro lowlands, southern Borena, and parts of northwestern low lands.
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What has happed to the big lakes of the Rift Valley?
• They dried up owing to evaporation and the temperature was about 50°c
• In the area of dried lakes, we find potash, salt and pockets of saline water (e.g.
Lake Afrera/Afdera).
• According to the place and manner of deposition and depositing agents these
deposits are divided:
1) Lacustrine deposits on former lakebeds, and swampy depressions.
2) Fluvial deposits on the banks of rivers, flood plains in plateau, foothills.
3) Glacio-fluvial deposits and erosional features occurred on high mountains, such
as Bale and Kaka Mountains.
Aeolian deposits are wind blown deposits.
Coastal and marine deposits on sea invaded and sea-covered place.
• Overall, Cenozoic rocks cover 50% of the land mass: Highland Tertiary volcanics
(basalts), Tertiary as well as Quaternary volcanics, and sediments of the rift valley.
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• The formation of the RV has the following structural (physiographic) effects:
It divides the Ethiopian Plateau into two.
It separates the Arabian landmass from African landmass.
It causes the formation of the Dead Sea, Red Sea and Gulf of Aden troughs
It creates basins and fault depressions on which the RV lakes are formed.
Quaternary volcanic eruptions and depositions
• The time is 2.5 million years – present.
• It occurred in the Pliocene-Pleistocene Epochs.
• Major geological processes of the period were:
a) volcanism and uplift of the Afar horst/Alps: resulted in the formation of an inland sea in the
Afar.
b) emission of lava took place in the RV and south of Lake Tana.
c) global climatic change:
• Climatic changes during the period caused heavy rains in tropical countries known as “pluvial
period”.
• During the pluvial period, Ethiopian lakes were larger, deeper and numerous.
• The12/11/2025
heavy rains resulted in the formation of pluvial
Ethiopian Geography deposits.
and the Horn GeES, MU 20
• The basic volcanic features of the Aden series include:
 Numerous and preserved volcanic cones, explosive craters.
Active Dubi, Erta Ale, Afrera volcanoes; Erta Ale is the most active
volcano.
Volcanic hills and mountains.
Extensive lava, lava sheets, Lava ridges, thermal springs and fumaroles.
• Pluvial period was characterized by depositions of:
• Lacustrine deposits around lakes
• Alluvial deposits on banks of rivers
• Flood plains in plateaus and foothills.
• The quaternary deposits are found in the RV(Afar and Lakes Region),
Baro lowlands, southern Borena, and parts of northwestern low lands.

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What has happed to the big lakes of the Rift Valley?
• They dried up owing to evaporation and the temperature was about 50°c
• In the area of dried lakes, we find potash, salt and pockets of saline
water (e.g. Lake Afrera/Afdera).
• According to the place and manner of deposition and depositing agents
these deposits are divided:
1) Lacustrine deposits on former lakebeds, and swampy depressions.
2) Fluvial deposits on the banks of rivers, flood plains in plateau,
foothills.
3) Glacio-fluvial deposits and erosional features occurred on high
mountains, such as Bale and Kaka Mountains.
Aeolian deposits are wind blown deposits.
Coastal and marine deposits on sea invaded and sea-covered place.
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2.5 Rock and Mineral Resources of Ethiopia
• The occurrence of metallic minerals is associated with the Precambrian
rocks.
• The exploitation and search for mineral deposits has been taking place
for the past 2,000 years.
• The mining and working of iron for the manufacture of tools, utensils
and weapons, and the use of salt and salt-bar indicate to a fairly long
mining tradition.
2.5.1 Brief facts and current state of main minerals
• The Geological survey proved that Ethiopia has abundant mineral
resources of metals and precious metals, coal, and industrial minerals.

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1) Gold
• It has been mined from Benishangul-Gumuz (Metekel) and Adola.
• Secondary gold deposits are common in Adola, Murmur, Shakiso, Awata, Dawa,
Ghenale, Ujama, Makanisa and Kaffa.
• In Gambella and Illuababora (Akobo River), in Sidama (Wondo), Borena
(Negele-Yabelo area) and in Benishangul-Gumuz (Sherkole), west Wellega,
Mengi-Tumat-Shangul areas to the Sudanese border, and the drainage of the
Didessa and Birbir, and western Tigray.
2) Platinum
• The Yubdo area in Wellega, is the only active Ethiopian Platinum mine.
• It occurrences in Delatti in Wellega, and the valley of Demi-Denissa and Bone
Rivers as well as Tullu Mountain area in Sidama.
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3) Tantalum
• A Significant deposit of tantalum and niobium is found in southern
Ethiopia
• In Adola area where Kenticha Tantalum mine with resources of more
than 17,000 metric tons of world
class ore reserve is found;
• The sedimentary and volcanic rock activities are resourceful.
• Extensive lignite deposits in Ethiopia are found in Nedjo (Wellega),
• A small amounts of lignite deposite is found in Chilga (Gonder)
• Lignite, one of the lowest ranked coal, is known to occur in many
localities such as in the Beressa Valley and Ankober (North Shewa),
Sululta (nearAddis Ababa),Muger Valley (West Shewa) etc.
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4) Gemstones
• It includes amethyst, aquamarine, emerald, garnet, opal, peridot,
sapphire and tourmaline occur in Amhara and Oromia.
5) Potash
• The potash reserve in the Danakil (Dallol Depression) of the Afar
region is believed to be significant.
6) Gypsum and Anhydrite
• A limited amount of gypsum is produced for domestic consumption in
Ethiopia for the cement industry.
• Very large deposits occur in sedimentary formations of the Red Sea
coastal area, Danakil Depression, Ogaden, Shewa, Gojjam, Tigray, and
Hararghe.
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7) Clay
• Alluvial clay deposits occur in Adola, Abay gorge, and the RV lakes region.
• Ceramic clay is found at Ambo and Adola.
• Tabor ceramic industry gets its raw materials from Kibremengist.
8) Marble
• It has been quarried in west of Mekelle and south of Adwa in Tigray.
• In the eastern Ethiopia: Galetti, Soka, Ramis, Rochelle, Kumi …
• In the northwestern: Gonder, and the Dabus River…
9) Construction stones
• Basalt, granite, limestone and sandstone are important building stones.
• For the surfacing of roads and compaction, basalt and scoria are used.
• Mesozoic
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2.5.2 Mineral potential sites of Ethiopia
• Most mineral potential includes three green stone belts:
1) The Western and South-western-greenstone belt
• Primary gold occurrences: Dul,Tulu-Kape,Oda-Godere …
• Base metals: AzaliAkendeyu, Abetselo and Kata, Fakushu …
• Iron deposits: Bikilal, Chago, Gordana and Korre …
2) The Southern greenstone belt: known as the Adola belt
• It comprises the primary gold deposits: Lega-dembi, Sakaro, Wellena ….
3) The northern greenstone belt (Tigray)
• This belt comprises of the primary gold occurrences of Terakemti, Adi-Zeresenay,
and Nirague.
• The base metals of Terer, Tsehafiemba and other parts of Tigray, Placer gold
occurrences of Tigray.

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