Additive
Manufacturing
Introduction and
Basic Principles
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What Is Additive Manufacturing?
• Additive Manufacturing is the formalized term for what used to be called Rapid
Prototyping and what is popularly called 3D Printing.
• The term Rapid Prototyping (RP) was used widely to describe technologies which
created physical prototypes directly from digital model data.
• Many parts are in fact now directly manufactured in these processes, so it is not
possible to label them as “prototypes.”
• ASTM consensus standards now use the term Additive Manufacturing (AM) as do most
standards bodies worldwide.
• Basic principle of this technology is that a model, initially generated using a three-
dimensional Computer Aided Design (3D CAD) system, can be fabricated directly
without the need for process planning.
• AM technology significantly simplifies the process of producing complex 3D objects
directly from CAD data.
• Other manufacturing processes require:
• A careful and detailed analysis of the part geometry
• What tools and processes must be used
• What additional fixtures may be required to complete the part
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• The key to how AM works is that parts are
made by adding material in layers;
Accuracy and Mechanical
• Each layer is a thin cross-section of the properties?!
part derived from the original CAD data.
• Obviously in the physical world, each
layer must have a finite thickness to
it, and so the resulting part will be an
approximation of the original data.
• The thinner each layer is, the closer the
final part will be to the original.
• All commercialized AM machines to date
use a layer-based approach:
• How are the layers created?
• How are the layers bonded to each other? Fig. 1.1 CAD image of a teacup with further images showing the effects of building
• How quickly the part can be made? using different layer thicknesses
• How much post-processing is required?
• Overall cost of the process.
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What Are AM Parts Used For?
• Initially, AM was used specifically to create visualization models for
products as they were being developed.
• Models were quickly employed to supply information about what is
known as the “3 Fs” of Form, Fit, and Function.
• The initial models were used to help fully appreciate
the shape and general purpose of a design (Form).
• Improved accuracy in the process meant that
components were capable of being built to the
tolerances required for assembly purposes (Fit).
• Improved material properties meant that parts could
be properly handled so that they could be assessed
according to how they would eventually work
(Function).
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The Generic AM Process
• AM involves a number of steps that move from the virtual CAD
description to the physical resultant part.
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Step 1: CAD
• All AM parts must start from a software model that fully
describes the external geometry.
• This can involve the use of almost any professional CAD
solid modeling software, but the output must be a 3D
solid or surface representation.
• Reverse engineering equipment (e.g., laser and optical
scanning) can also be used to create this representation.
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Step 2: Conversion to STL
• Nearly every AM machine accepts the STL file format, which
has become a standard, and nowadays nearly every CAD
system can output such a file format.
• This file describes the external closed surfaces of the original
CAD model and forms the basis for calculation of the slices.
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Step 3: Transfer to AM Machine
and STL File
Manipulation
• The STL file describing the part must be transferred to the
AM machine.
• Here, there may be some general manipulation of the file so
that it is the correct size, position, and orientation for
building.
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Step 4: Machine Setup
• The AM machine must be properly set up prior to the build
process.
• Such settings would relate to the build parameters like the
material constraints, energy source, layer thickness,
timings, etc.
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Step 5: Build
• Building the part is mainly an automated process, and the
machine can largely carry on without supervision.
• Only superficial monitoring of the machine needs to take
place at this time to ensure no errors have taken place like
running out of material, power or software bugs, etc.
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Step 6: Removal
• Once the AM machine has completed the build, the parts
must be removed.
• This may require interaction with the machine, which may
have safety interlocks to ensure, for example, that the
operating temperatures are sufficiently low or that there
are no actively moving parts.
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Step 7: Post-Processing
• Once removed from the machine, parts may require an amount of
additional cleaning up before they are ready for use.
• Parts may be weak at this stage, or they may have supporting features
that must be removed.
• They may require priming and painting to give an acceptable surface
texture and finish.
• This step may also involve heat treatment.
• Post-processing may be costly, difficult, and lengthy if the finishing
requirements are very demanding.
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Step 8: Application
• Parts are now ready for use.
• This may require them to be assembled together with other
mechanical or electronic components to form a final model
or product.
• There is an increasing use of materials and process standards
for AM, and the ASTM F42 Technical Committee on Additive
Manufacturing Technologies is working to add more
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The Benefits of AM
• First, let’s consider the “rapid” character of this technology. The speed advantage is
not just in terms of the time it takes to build parts. The speeding up of the whole
product development process relies much on the fact that we are using computers
throughout.
• Just as 3D CAD is becoming What You See Is What You Get (WYSIWYG), so it is the
same with AM, and we might just as easily say that What you See Is What You
Build (WYSIWYB).
• It can be possible to manufacture a vast range of different parts with different
characteristics.
• Workshops which adopt AM technology can be much cleaner, more streamlined,
and more versatile than before.
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Geometry as a factor
• Such geometry can become extremely difficult to produce with CNC,
even with 5-axis interpolated control or greater.
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Related Technologies
• The most common input method for AM technology is to accept a file
converted into the STL file format originally built within a
conventional 3D CAD system.
• There are, however, other ways in which the STL files can be
generated and other technologies that can be used in conjunction
with AM technology.
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Reverse Engineering Technology
• More and more models are being built from data generated using
reverse engineering (RE) 3D imaging equipment and software.
• RE is the process of capturing geometric data from another object.
• These data are usually initially available in what is termed “point
cloud” form, meaning an unconnected set of points representing the
object surfaces.
• These points need to be connected together using RE software like
Catia, Solid Works, Geomagic, which may also be used to combine
point clouds from different scans and to perform other functions like
hole-filling and smoothing.
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• Engineered objects would normally be scanned using laser scanning or touch
probe technology.
• Objects that have complex internal features or anatomical models may make
use of Computerized Tomography (CT), which was initially developed for
medical imaging but is also available for scanning industrially produced
objects.
• This technique essentially works in a similar way to AM, by scanning layer-by-
layer and using software to join these layers and identify the surface
boundaries.
• AM can be used to reproduce the articles that were scanned, which essentially
would form a kind of (3D Fax) process.
• An example may be where individual patient data are combined with an
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engineering design to form a customized medical implant.
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9 7/8 inch Tricone Bit (RE)
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Cloud of points
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Catia
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