CHAPTER TWO
Standards of
Measurements
Introduction
• Metrology concerns itself with the science of
measurement and nearly all measurement of
dimensions. Production engineer is specially
concerned with the measurement of the length
and angle. Thus it is very essential that some
standards be prescribed for the length. The
importance of study of length has been realized
long back and man has always sought a fixed and
unvarying natural standard of length(fundamental
unit). Without standards fundamental units
(length, mass, time), it would have not been
possible for civilization to exist.
standards
The two standard systems for linear measurement
used throughout the world are English and
Metric(yard and meter). Realizing the importance
and advantage of metric system, most of the
countries are adopting meter as the fundamental unit
of linear measurement.
The various standards now known for linear
measurement are:
1. line standard
2. End standard
3. Wavelength standard
Line standard
According to line standard, yard or meter is defined
as the distance b/n scribed lines on a bar of metal
under certain conditions of temperature and
support.
Yard – the imperial standard yard is a
bronze(82%copper,13%tin, 5%zinc) bar of one inch
square cross-section and 38 inches long. A round
recess, one inch away from two ends is cut at both
ends up to central plane of the bar. A gold plug
1“/10 dia having three lines engraved transversely,
and two lines longitudinally is inserted into this holes
so that the lines are in neutral plane.
Yard is then defined as the distance b/n the two
central transverse lines of plug at 620F. Secondary
standards were also made as a copy of the above
international yard for occasional comparisons.
The purpose of keeping the gold plug lines at
neutral axis is that due to bending of beam,
METER-this is the distance b/n the center portion of
two lines engraved on the polished surface of a
bar of pure platinum-iridium alloy (90%platinum
and 10% iridium). The upper surface of the web is
inoxidizable and needs a good finish for ruling a
good quality of engraved lines. This bar is kept at
00C and under normal atmospheric pressure. It is
supported by two rollers of at least 1cm dia
symmetrically situated in the same horizontal
plane at a distance of 751mm, so as to give
minimum deflection.
It has a shape of winged section having a web
whose surface lines are on the neutral axis. The
section chosen gives max rigidity and economy of
costly material.
This reference is designed as international
prototype meter-M in 1899.
Subdivision Of Standards
The imperial standard yard and meter defined
previously are just like master standards and can’t be
used for ordinary purpose. Thus depending upon the
importance of standard, standards are sub-divided into
four grades.
1) Primary standards. To define a unit most precisely,
there is only one material standard which is preserved
under very specifically created conditions. Such type of
a material standard is known as primary standard. The
international meter is e.g. of a primary standard. This
should be used only for comparison with secondary
standards and can’t be used for direct application.
2) Secondary standards. Are close copies of
primary standards as regards both design,
material and length. These are as far as possible,
exactly similar to primary standards. Any error
existing in these bars is recorded by comparison
with primary standards after long interval. These
are kept at a number of places under a great
supervision and are used for comparison with
tertiary standards when ever desired. This also
acts as safeguard against the loss or destruction
of primary standard.
3) Tertiary standards : the primary and secondary
standards are applicable only as ultimate controls.
Tertiary standards are used for reference purpose
in laboratories and workshops. These are also
used for comparison at intervals with working
standards.
4) Working standards: these are also line standards
and similar in design to (1), (2) and (3), but being
less In cost, are made of lower grades of
materials. These are of general application in
metrology laboratories.
End standards
The need of an end standard arises as the use of line
standards and their copies was difficult at various
places in workshops.
End standard are used for all practical measurement
in workshops and general use in precision
engineering in standard laboratories. These are in
the form of end bars and slip gauges.
In case of Vernier calipers and micrometers, the job
is held between the jaws/anvils of the measuring
instrument and the corresponding readings is noted,
while a length bar and slip gauges are used to set
the required length to be used as a refeference
dimension.
The only difficulty realized with end standard was
that of forming two accurately parallel surfaces at
the end of a bar and to heat treat the ends so that
they remained stable.
• End bar or Length bar. These are used for the
measurement of larger size of work. These consist of
carbon steel round bar about 20mm In dia and made in
size varying from 10mm to 1200mm. These are
hardened only at ends upto 800HV and supported at
‘Airy points’ (Airy Points are used for precision
measurement to support a length standard in such a
way as to minimize bending or droop) so
that end surface are parallel to each other.
Slip Gauge: these are practical end standards
and can be used in linear measurements in many
ways like to set the required length to be used as
a reference dimension. Slip gauges are
rectangular blocks of hardened and stabilized
high grade cast steel or ceramic compound and
are available with a 9mm wide, 30 to 35mm long
cross section. The length of a slip gauge is strictly
the dimension which it measures- in some slip
gauges it is the shortest dimension and in the
larger slip gauges, it is the longest.
Wavelength standard
Line and end standards are physical standards and
are made up of materials that can change their size
with temperature and other environment
conditions. The working standard to which one can
refer is derived from a physical standard and in
establishing the size of a working standard by above
process, successive comparisons must be made.
This leads to errors of unacceptable order of
magnitude. Using wave length of monochromatic
light which is natural and invariable unit of length,
the working standard is no more dependent on
physical standard.
For all practical purposes the use of phenomenon
of the interference of light waves to provide
working standard may be accepted as ultimate.
Cadium 114, krypton 86, and mercury 198 are
possible source of radiation of wavelength
suitable as natural standard of length.
Finally it was decided that Kr 86 is the most
suitable element if used in a hot-cathode
discharge lamp maintained at 68K, to define the
meter. The orange radiation was selected for the
measurement of meter.
According to this standard meter is defined a
1650763.73wavelengths of the orange radiation
of krypton isotope-86 gas.
The meter is the length of the path travelled by
light in vaccum during a time interval of
1/299,792,458 of a second.
1meter=1650763.73 wavelengths, and
1 yard=0.9144meter
=0.9144 x 1650763.73wavelengths
=1509458.3wavelengths