What is Magnetic Field?

Space Around A charge Where an other a charge

Experian a force of attraction or repulsion is
Called Magnetic field….
Measured in teslas (T) or gauss (G).

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 Magnetic Field Lines

Magnetic field lines are a visual representation of the magnetic field around a magnet
or current-carrying wire.
They help us understand the direction and strength of the magnetic field.

Properties of Magnetic Field Lines

1. Direction: Magnetic field lines emerge from the north pole and enter the south
pole.
2. Density: The density of lines represents the magnetic field strength. More lines
indicate a stronger magnetic field.
3. Continuous: Magnetic field lines form closed loops, with no beginning or end.
4. Non-intersecting: Magnetic field lines never intersect each other.

Characteristics of Magnetic Field Lines

2. Magnetic field lines are strongest near the poles: The lines are closer together
near the poles, indicating a stronger magnetic field.
2. Magnetic field lines are weaker farther away from the poles: The lines are farther
apart, indicating a weaker magnetic field
 Reluctance
Reluctance is a measure of the opposition to magnetic flux in a magnetic
circuit.
It's similar to resistance in electric circuits.
Key Points
1. Definition: Reluctance (S) is the ratio of magnetomotive force (MMF) to
magnetic flux (Φ).
2. Unit: Reluctance is measured in ampere-turns per weber (AT/Wb).

3. Factors affecting reluctance: Material's permeability, length, and cross-

sectional area of the magnetic circuit.

Formula
S = MMF / Φ = l / (μ × A)
Where:-
S = reluctance-
l = length of the magnetic circuit-
μ = permeability of the material-
A = cross-sectional area
 Relative Permeability
Relative permeability (μr) is a measure of how easily magnetic fields pass through a
material compared to air or vacuum.

- μr = 1: Air or vacuum
- μr > 1: Ferromagnetic materials (e.g., iron, nickel, cobalt)
- μr < 1: Diamagnetic materials (e.g., copper, carbon)
- μr ≈ 1: Paramagnetic materials (e.g., aluminum, oxygen)
Magnetic materials……..
All the materials have the magnetic properties
These characteristic properties may be divided
Into Three groups….

● diamagnetic
● paramagnetic
● ferromagnetic

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● Diamagnetic:- those materials which have the relative
permeability less than One 1 .They are non-magnetic
example is water.

Paramagnetic:- those materials which have the relative

permeability Greater than One 1(>1)
Relative permeability= 1.00001-1.01
Examples:-Al,

Ferromagnetic:- those materials which

have the relative permeability very
less than One 1(>>1)

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 B-H Curve
The B-H curve, also known as the magnetization curve, is a graphical representation of
the relationship between magnetic flux density (B) and magnetic field strength (H) for
a particular material.
Key Points
1. Magnetic Flux Density (B): measured in teslas (T), represents the strength of the
magnetic field.

2. Magnetic Field Strength (H): measured in ampere per meter (A/m), represents the
driving force behind the magnetic field.

What is Hysteresis
The lag or delay of a magnetism due to the magnetization properties of a material by
which it firstly becomes magnetized and then de-magnetized is known as magnetic
hysteresis. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the induced magnetic
flux density (B) and the magnetizing force (H). It is often referred to as the B-H
loop.
Hysteresis Loop:- If an alternating magnetic field is applied to the material, its
magnetization will trace out a loop called ‘Hysteresis loop’.
 Magnetic Saturation
The unit beyond which magnetic flux density in magnetic area does not
increase sharply further with increase of mmf.

Retentivity
The ability of the magnetic field remaining in the material even after removing
the external source is known as ‘Retentivity’.

Coersive Force
The minimum value of magnetising intensity that is required to bring the
material to it’s original state
Working principal of transformer………

A transformer is a stationary piece of apparatus by

means of which electric power in one circuit is
transformed into electric power of the same frequency
in another circuit.

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It can rise or lower the voltage in a circuit but with
corresponding decrease or increase in current.
In its simplest form, it consists of two inductive coils
which are electrically separated but magnetically
coupled through a path of low reluctance as shown in
above figure. If one coil is connected to source of
alternating voltage an alternating flux is setup into the
core most of which is linked with the other coil in which
it produced mutual induced e.m.f ( according to faraday
law of electromagnetic induction) if the second coil
circuit is closed, a current flows in it and electrical
energy is transferred from primary to secondary.

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 The source winding is known as primary winding
And load winding is known secondary winding.

Brain Buster
Why the power remain constant
from primary to secondary????
According to OHMS law “ As Voltage increases current
Also increases” but in transformer as

voltage increases current decreases HOW???????

These thing will be discussed in the next class!!!

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Transformer Construction……..
A simple transformer consists of two coils having
mutual inductance and a laminated steel core(?).
The two coils insulated from each other and from steel
core.

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 There are two types of losses in transformer core
Eddy current losses
Hysteresis losses
Eddy current losses:-
When the current flows through the body of the core,
it produce it produce heat according to relation
P I ^ 2( R )

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Hysteresis losses:-
Power loss in reversal of magnetism
Or
Lagging of B behind of H is call hysteresis losses

We use silicon material in order to reduce the

area of the curve……
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The core is constructed of sheet steel lamination
assembled to provided continuous magnetic path with
a minimum of air gap included.

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 Theory of an ideal Transformer….
An ideal transformer is one which has NO losses
means “it has no any losses” i.e. its winding has no
any resistance, there is no any magnetic leakage and
hence which has no any I2R & core losses
Consider an ideal T/F whose secondary is open and
primary is connected with alternating voltage V1. this
potential difference causes a current to flow in the
primary. As the secondary is open primary draws the
magnetizing current Iù only. The function of this current
is to magnetize the core it is small in magnitude and legs
V1 by 90ȯ .

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 This alternating current Iù produces a alternating flux
which is in the phase with the magnetizing current . now
this flux links with the both primary and secondary
winding.

When it links with the primary it produce self induced

e.m.f . That e.m.f is known as BACK E.M.F or COUNTER
E.M.F. denoted by E1

Similarly same flux when links with the secondary turns

it produces the mutual induced e.m.f and denoted by20 E2.
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E.M.F Equation of transformer…

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E.M.F Equation of transformer…

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Turn Ratio Of transformer

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Actual Transformer…
have the resistance into the winding.

Not all the flux produce by the primary links with the
other(Flux leakage)

Magnetic core has finite permeability

Core losses
o Eddy current losses
o Hysteresis losses

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Transformer with losses but no magnetic
leakage.
We will consider two cases
(1) when such a transformer on no-load
(2) when such a transformer is on load
(1) when such a transformer on no-load
We have already discuss that ideal T/F is the one which
do not have any losses. But when actual transformer is
put on load there is a iron losses & copper losses (On
primary & Secondary) and these losses can not be
entirely negligible.

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 Even when the T/F is on No-Load the primary input
current has to supply the iron losses(i.e. hysteresis and
eddy current losses) and a very small amount of copper
losses. The no-load input power
Wο=V1Iοcosθο
where cosθο is primary power factor under no-load
condition.
The primary input current could be spited into two
components:
(1) One in phase with V1. this is known as active or
working component or iron loss component Iw
because it mainly supplies iron loss plus small
quantity of copper loss.
Iw=Iο cosθο
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(2) The other component is in quadrature with V1. and is
known as magnetizing component Iū because its
function is to sustain the alternating flux into the core. It
is watt less.
Iū =Iο sinθο
Obviously Iο is the vector sum of two components Iū & Iw
Hence Iο =(Iū2 +Iw2)
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 (2) when such a transformer on load
When the secondary is loaded, the secondary current I2
is setup.

The secondary current I2 setup its own m.m.f=(N2I2) and

hence its own flux φ2 is setup which is in opposition to
the main flux φ which is due to Iо.

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The secondary ampere-turn “N2I2” is known are known
as demagnetizing ampere-turn. The opposing
secondary flux φ2 weakens the primary flux φ
momentarily. Hence primary back e.m.f tend to reduce
as the primary back e.m.f reduces, primary current
increases that additional increase in current is known
as load component of primary current and denoted as I2’
V1=I1R1+e1
I1=(V1-e1)/R1
The additional primary m.m.f N1I2 is setup its own flux
φ2’ which is in opposite to φ2 and equal to it in
magnitude. Hence the two cancel each other out means
I2’ cancel I2 .
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Hence the transformer is on load, the primary winding
has two currents in it one I2’ and other is Iо . The total
primary current is the vector sum of I2’ & Iо .

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Equivalent circuit
of
Transformer…….

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Before discussing the EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT we have have to
discuss the some basic..
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE:-

A transformer is shown in above figure whose winding

have the resistance R1 & R2 respectively. The resistance
of the two winding can be transferred to any of the two
winding..
What is the advantages of Transferring the resistance??
It makes the calculation very simple and easy because
one has to then work in one winding only…………………
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Mathematically if the resistance of secondary R2 is
transferred to primary than it will be equivalent to the
R2/k2 and it is denoted by R2’ and it is known as the
secondary resistance referred to primary.
If the secondary resistance is transferred to primary
than the total resistance will be equivalent to the
R01=R1+R2’
Similarly if the primary resistance is transferred to the
secondary than
R02=R2+R1’ = R2+(K)2 R1

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Magnetic leakage:-

In ideal transformer we have assumed that All the flux

produced by the primary will links with the secondary
winding, And all the flux produced by the secondary
will link with the primary. But in actual transformer it
is not possible although majority of the flux produce
(mutual inductance) effect the part of the flux links
with the same coil (Self inductance) and a very little
amount of flux will go into air from the core.
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The flux which produce the self induced effect is called
leakage flux. If it is from primary side is called primary
leakage flux, if it is from secondary than it is called
secondary leakage flux and these leakage flux will
produce self induced e.m.f. “According to Faraday Law”.
Hence, in effect it is equivalent to small inductive coil in
series with each winding such that the voltage drop in
each series coil is equal to that produced by leakage
flux.

X1=eL1/I1 And X2=el2/I2

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Transformer with Resistance and leakage Reactance….

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 Equivalent Circuit….
The transformer shown diagrammatically in fig (a) can
be resolved into an equivalent circuit in which the
resistance and leakage reactance of the transformer are
imagined are to be external to the winding as in fig (b).

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When this type of transformer is connected with the supply it
will carry the no-load current I0 which consists of two components
Iw (Watt full current ) and Iµ (magnetizing Current).
To make the transfer calculation simpler it is preferable to transfer
the voltage, current and impedance either to primary or to
secondary. In that case we have to work only on to the one
winding.

The primary equivalent of the secondary induced voltage is E2’=E2/k=E!

Similarly primary equivalent of the secondary terminal voltage is V2’=V2/k

Primary equivalent of the secondary current is I2’=K I2
Similarly
R2’=R2/K2
X2’=X2/K2
Z2’=Z2/K2
RL’=RL/K2
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After the transformation of secondary parameters to
primary than the circuit look likes the

Final circuit

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 Open Circuit Test Definition:

The open circuit test of a transformer checks the core losses and
parameters of the shunt branch by connecting instruments to the LV side
and keeping the HV side open.

The connection diagram for open circuit test on transformer is shown in

the figure. A voltmeter, wattmeter, and an ammeter are connected in LV
side of the transformer as shown.

The HV side is kept open. Using the variac, increase the voltage slowly
until the voltmeter reads the rated LV voltage. Then, record the readings
of the voltmeter, ammeter, and wattmeter.

The ammeter reading gives the no load current Io. As no load current Io is
quite small compared to rated current of the transformer, the voltage
drops due to this current that can be taken as negligible.
The voltmeter reading V1 is taken as the secondary induced voltage. The
wattmeter shows the input power, which, since there is no output,
consists of core losses in transformer and copper losses. However,
because the no-load current is small, we can ignore the copper loss,
making the wattmeter reading equal to the core losses.

Therefore it is seen that the open circuit test on transformer is used to

determine core losses in transformer and parameters of the shunt branch
of the equivalent circuit of the transformer.
 Short Circuit Test on Transformer

The connection diagram for the short circuit test on the transformer is
shown in the figure below. A voltmeter, wattmeter, and an ammeter are
connected in HV side of the transformer as shown. A low voltage of
around 5-10% is applied to that HV side with the help of a variac (i.e. a
variable ratio auto transformer). We short-circuit the LV side of the
transformer. Now with the help of variac applied voltage is slowly
increased until the wattmeter, and an ammeter gives reading equal to the
rated current of the HV side.
 After reaching the rated current of the HV side, we record all the three
instrument readings (Voltmeter, Ammeter and Watt-meter readings). The
ammeter reading gives the primary equivalent of full load current I L. As
the voltage applied for full load current in a short circuit test on the
transformer is quite small compared to the rated primary voltage of the
transformer, the core losses in the transformer can be taken as negligible
here.
Hence the short-circuit test of a transformer is used to determine copper
losses in the transformer at full load