Software Testing

Some Terminologies
 Error, Mistake, Bug, Fault and Failure
People make errors. A good synonym is mistake. This may be a syntax
error or misunderstanding of specifications. Sometimes, there are logical
errors.

When developers make mistakes while coding, we call these mistakes

“bugs”.

A fault is the representation of an error, where representation is the mode

of expression, such as narrative text, data flow diagrams, ER diagrams,
source code etc. Defect is a good synonym for fault.

A failure occurs when a fault executes. A particular fault may cause

different failures, depending on how it has been exercised.

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 1
 Software Testing
 Test, Test Case and Test Suite

Test and Test case terms are used interchangeably. In practice, both are
same and are treated as synonyms. Test case describes an input
description and an expected output description.
Test Case ID
Section-I Section-II
(Before Execution) (After Execution)
Purpose : Execution History:
Pre condition: (If any) Result:
Inputs: If fails, any possible reason (Optional);

Expected Outputs: Any other observation:

Post conditions: Any suggestion:
Written by: Run by:
Date: Date:
Fig. 2: Test case template
The set of test cases is called a test suite. Hence any combination of test
cases may generate a test suite.
Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 2
 Software Testing

 Verification and Validation

Verification is the process of evaluating a system or component to

determine whether the products of a given development phase satisfy the
conditions imposed at the start of that phase.
Validation is the process of evaluating a system or component during or at
the end of development process to determine whether it satisfies the
specified requirements .
Testing= Verification+Validation

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 3
 Software Testing
 Alpha, Beta and Acceptance Testing

The term Acceptance Testing is used when the software is developed for
a specific customer. A series of tests are conducted to enable the customer
to validate all requirements. These tests are conducted by the end user /
customer and may range from adhoc tests to well planned systematic
series of tests.
The terms alpha and beta testing are used when the software is developed
as a product for anonymous customers.
Alpha Tests are conducted at the developer’s site by some potential
customers. These tests are conducted in a controlled environment. Alpha
testing may be started when formal testing process is near completion.

Beta Tests are conducted by the customers / end users at their sites.
Unlike alpha testing, developer is not present here. Beta testing is
conducted in a real environment that cannot be controlled by the
developer.
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 Software Testing
Functional Testing
Input Output
domain domain

System
Input test Output
under
data test data
test

Fig. 3: Black box testing

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 Software Testing
Boundary Value Analysis
Consider a program with two input variables x and y. These input variables
have specified boundaries as:
a≤x≤b
c≤y≤d

Input domain

d
y
c

a b
x
Fig.4: Input domain for program having two input variables
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 Software Testing
The boundary value analysis test cases for our program with two inputs
variables (x and y) that may have any value from 100 to 300 are:
(200,100), (200,101), (200,200), (200,299), (200,300), (100,200), (101,200),
(299,200) and (300,200). This input domain is shown in Fig. 8.5. Each dot represent
a test case and inner rectangle is the domain of legitimate inputs. Thus, for a
program of n variables, boundary value analysis yield 4n + 1 test cases.
Input domain
400
300
y 200
100

0 100 200 300 400

x
Fig. 5: Input domain of two variables x and y with
boundaries [100,300] each
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 Software Testing

Example- 8.I

Consider a program for the determination of the nature of roots of a

quadratic equation. Its input is a triple of positive integers (say a,b,c) and
values may be from interval [0,100]. The program output may have one of
the following words.
[Not a quadratic equation; Real roots; Imaginary roots; Equal roots]
Design the boundary value test cases.

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 8
 Software Testing
Solution

Quadratic equation will be of type:

ax2+bx+c=0
Roots are real if (b2-4ac)>0
Roots are imaginary if (b2-4ac)<0
Roots are equal if (b2-4ac)=0
Equation is not quadratic if a=0

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 9
 Software Testing
The boundary value test cases are :
Test Case a b c Expected output

1 0 50 50 Not Quadratic
2 1 50 50 Real Roots
3 50 50 50 Imaginary Roots
4 99 50 50 Imaginary Roots
5 100 50 50 Imaginary Roots
6 50 0 50 Imaginary Roots
7 50 1 50 Imaginary Roots
8 50 99 50 Imaginary Roots
9 50 100 50 Equal Roots
10 50 50 0 Real Roots
11 50 50 1 Real Roots
12 50 50 99 Imaginary Roots
13 50 50 100 Imaginary Roots

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 Software Testing
Example – 8.3

Consider a simple program to classify a triangle. Its inputs is a triple of

positive integers (say x, y, z) and the date type for input parameters ensures
that these will be integers greater than 0 and less than or equal to 100. The
program output may be one of the following words:
[Scalene; Isosceles; Equilateral; Not a triangle]
Design the boundary value test cases.

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 11
 Software Testing
Solution
The boundary value test cases are shown below:

Test case x y z Expected Output

1 50 50 1 Isosceles
2 50 50 2 Isosceles

3 50 50 50 Equilateral
4 50 50 99 Isosceles
5 50 50 100 Not a triangle
6 50 1 50 Isosceles
7 50 2 50 Isosceles
8 50 99 50 Isosceles
9 50 100 50 Not a triangle
10 1 50 50 Isosceles
11 2 50 50 Isosceles
12 99 50 50 Isosceles
13 100 50 50 Not a triangle

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 Software Testing
Robustness testing
It is nothing but the extension of boundary value analysis. Here, we would
like to see, what happens when the extreme values are exceeded with a
value slightly greater than the maximum, and a value slightly less than
minimum. It means, we want to go outside the legitimate boundary of input
domain. This extended form of boundary value analysis is called
robustness testing and shown in Fig. 6

There are four additional test cases which are outside the legitimate input
domain. Hence total test cases in robustness testing are 6n+1, where n is
the number of input variables. So, 13 test cases are:

(200,99), (200,100), (200,101), (200,200), (200,299), (200,300)

(200,301), (99,200), (100,200), (101,200), (299,200), (300,200), (301,200)

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 13
 Software Testing

400
300
y 200
100

0 100 200 300 400

x

Fig. 8.6: Robustness test cases for two variables x

and y with range [100,300] each

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 Software Testing
Table 1: Worst cases test inputs for two variables example

Test case Inputs Test case Inputs

number number
x y x y

1 100 100 14 200 299

2 100 101 15 200 300
3 100 200 16 299 100
4 100 299 17 299 101
5 100 300 18 299 200
6 101 100 19 299 299
7 101 101 20 299 300
8 101 200 21 300 100
9 101 299 22 300 101
10 101 300 23 300 200
11 200 100 24 300 299
12 200 101 25 300 300
13 200 200 --

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 Software Testing
Example - 8.4

Consider the program for the determination of nature of roots of a quadratic

equation as explained in example 8.1. Design the Robust test case and
worst test cases for this program.

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 16
 Software Testing

Solution

Robust test cases are 6n+1. Hence, in 3 variable input cases total number
of test cases are 19 as given on next slide:

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 17
 Software Testing
Test case a b c Expected Output

1 -1 50 50 Invalid input`

2 0 50 50 Not quadratic equation

3 1 50 50 Real roots
4 50 50 50 Imaginary roots
5 99 50 50 Imaginary roots
6 100 50 50 Imaginary roots

7 101 50 50 Invalid input

8 50 -1 50 Invalid input
9 50 0 50 Imaginary roots
10 50 1 50 Imaginary roots
11 50 99 50 Imaginary roots
12 50 100 50 Equal roots
13 50 101 50 Invalid input
14 50 50 -1 Invalid input

15 50 50 0 Real roots

16 50 50 1 Real roots
17 50 50 99 Imaginary roots
18 50 50 100 Imaginary roots
19 50 50 101 Invalid input
Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 18
 Software Testing
In case of worst test case total test cases are 5n. Hence, 125 test cases will be
generated in worst test cases. The worst test cases are given below:
Test Case a b c Expected output

1 0 0 0 Not Quadratic
2 0 0 1 Not Quadratic
3 0 0 50 Not Quadratic
4 0 0 99 Not Quadratic
5 0 0 100 Not Quadratic
6 0 1 0 Not Quadratic
7 0 1 1 Not Quadratic
8 0 1 50 Not Quadratic
9 0 1 99 Not Quadratic
10 0 1 100 Not Quadratic
11 0 50 0 Not Quadratic
12 0 50 1 Not Quadratic
13 0 50 50 Not Quadratic
14 0 50 99 Not Quadratic

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 19
 Software Testing
Test Case A b c Expected output

15 0 50 100 Not Quadratic

16 0 99 0 Not Quadratic
17 0 99 1 Not Quadratic
18 0 99 50 Not Quadratic
19 0 99 99 Not Quadratic
20 0 99 100 Not Quadratic
21 0 100 0 Not Quadratic
22 0 100 1 Not Quadratic
23 0 100 50 Not Quadratic
24 0 100 99 Not Quadratic
25 0 100 100 Not Quadratic
26 1 0 0 Equal Roots
27 1 0 1 Imaginary
28 1 0 50 Imaginary
29 1 0 99 Imaginary
30 1 0 100 Imaginary
31 1 1 0 Real Roots
Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 20
 Software Testing
Test Case A b C Expected output

32 1 1 1 Imaginary
33 1 1 50 Imaginary
34 1 1 99 Imaginary
35 1 1 100 Imaginary
36 1 50 0 Real Roots
37 1 50 1 Real Roots
38 1 50 50 Real Roots
39 1 50 99 Real Roots
40 1 50 100 Real Roots
41 1 99 0 Real Roots
42 1 99 1 Real Roots
43 1 99 50 Real Roots
44` 1 99 99 Real Roots
45 1 99 100 Real Roots
46 1 100 0 Real Roots
47 1 100 1 Real Roots
48 1 100 50 Real Roots
Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 21
 Software Testing
Test Case A b C Expected output

49 1 100 99 Real Roots

50 1 100 100 Real Roots
51 50 0 0 Equal Roots
52 50 0 1 Imaginary
53 50 0 50 Imaginary
54 50 0 99 Imaginary
55 50 0 100 Imaginary
56 50 1 0 Real Roots
57 50 1 1 Imaginary
58 50 1 50 Imaginary
59 50 1 99 Imaginary
60 50 1 100 Imaginary
61 50 50 0 Real Roots
62 50 50 1 Real Roots
63 50 50 50 Imaginary
64 50 50 99 Imaginary
65 50 50 100 Imaginary
Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 22
 Software Testing
Test Case A b C Expected output

66 50 99 0 Real Roots
67 50 99 1 Real Roots
68 50 99 50 Imaginary
69 50 99 99 Imaginary
70 50 99 100 Imaginary
71 50 100 0 Real Roots
72 50 100 1 Real Roots
73 50 100 50 Equal Roots
74 50 100 99 Imaginary
75 50 100 100 Imaginary
76 99 0 0 Equal Roots
77 99 0 1 Imaginary
78 99 0 50 Imaginary
79 99 0 99 Imaginary
80 99 0 100 Imaginary
81 99 1 0 Real Roots
82 99 1 1 Imaginary

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 23
 Software Testing
Test Case A b C Expected output

83 99 1 50 Imaginary
84 99 1 99 Imaginary
85 99 1 100 Imaginary
86 99 50 0 Real Roots
87 99 50 1 Real Roots
88 99 50 50 Imaginary
89 99 50 99 Imaginary
90 99 50 100 Imaginary
91 99 99 0 Real Roots
92 99 99 1 Real Roots
93 99 99 50 Imaginary Roots
94 99 99 99 Imaginary
95 99 99 100 Imaginary
96 99 100 0 Real Roots
97 99 100 1 Real Roots
98 99 100 50 Imaginary
99 99 100 99 Imaginary
100 99 100 100 Imaginary
Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 24
 Software Testing
Test Case A b C Expected output

101 100 0 0 Equal Roots

102 100 0 1 Imaginary
103 100 0 50 Imaginary
104 100 0 99 Imaginary
105 100 0 100 Imaginary
106 100 1 0 Real Roots
107 100 1 1 Imaginary
108 100 1 50 Imaginary
109 100 1 99 Imaginary
110 100 1 100 Imaginary
111 100 50 0 Real Roots
112 100 50 1 Real Roots
113 100 50 50 Imaginary
114 100 50 99 Imaginary
115 100 50 100 Imaginary
116 100 99 0 Real Roots
117 100 99 1 Real Roots
118 100 99 50 Imaginary

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 25
 Software Testing
Test Case A b C Expected output

119 100 99 99 Imaginary

120 100 99 100 Imaginary
121 100 100 0 Real Roots
122 100 100 1 Real Roots
123 100 100 50 Imaginary
124 100 100 99 Imaginary
125 100 100 100 Imaginary

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 26
 Software Testing
Example – 8.5

Consider the program for the determination of previous date in a calendar as

explained in example 8.2. Design the robust and worst test cases for this
program.

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 27
 Software Testing

Example – 8.6

Consider the triangle problem as given in example 8.3. Generate robust and
worst test cases for this problem.

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 28
 Software Testing
Solution

Robust test cases are given on next slide.

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 29
 Software Testing
` x y z Expected Output
1 50 50 0 Invalid input`

2 50 50 1 Isosceles

3 50 50 2 Isosceles
4 50 50 50 Equilateral
5 50 50 99 Isosceles
6 50 50 100 Not a triangle

7 50 50 101 Invalid input

8 50 0 50 Invalid input
9 50 1 50 Isosceles
10 50 2 50 Isosceles
11 50 99 50 Isosceles
12 50 100 50 Not a triangle
13 50 101 50 Invalid input
14 0 50 50 Invalid input

15 1 50 50 Isosceles

16 2 50 50 Isosceles
17 99 50 50 Isosceles
18 100 50 50 Not a triangle
19 100 50 50 Invalid input
Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 30
 Software Testing
Worst test cases are 125 and are given below:

Test Case x y z Expected output

1 1 1 1 Equilateral
2 1 1 2 Not a triangle
3 1 1 50 Not a triangle
4 1 1 99 Not a triangle
5 1 1 100 Not a triangle
6 1 2 1 Not a triangle
7 1 2 2 Isosceles
8 1 2 50 Not a triangle
9 1 2 99 Not a triangle
10 1 2 100 Not a triangle
11 1 50 1 Not a triangle
12 1 50 2 Not a triangle
13 1 50 50 Isosceles
14 1 50 99 Not a triangle

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 31
 Software Testing
Test Case A b c Expected output

15 1 50 100 Not a triangle

16 1 99 1 Not a triangle
17 1 99 2 Not a triangle
18 1 99 50 Not a triangle
19 1 99 99 Isosceles
20 1 99 100 Not a triangle
21 1 100 1 Not a triangle
22 1 100 2 Not a triangle
23 1 100 50 Not a triangle
24 1 100 99 Not a triangle
25 1 100 100 Isosceles
26 2 1 1 Not a triangle
27 2 1 2 Isosceles
28 2 1 50 Not a triangle
29 2 1 99 Not a triangle
30 2 1 100 Not a triangle
31 2 2 1 Isosceles
Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 32
 Software Testing
Test Case A b C Expected output

32 2 2 2 Equilateral
33 2 2 50 Not a triangle
34 2 2 99 Not a triangle
35 2 2 100 Not a triangle
36 2 50 1 Not a triangle
37 2 50 2 Not a triangle
38 2 50 50 Isosceles
39 2 50 99 Not a triangle
40 2 50 100 Not a triangle
41 2 99 1 Not a triangle
42 2 99 2 Not a triangle
43 2 99 50 Not a triangle
44 2 99 99 Isosceles
45 2 99 100 Scalene
46 2 100 1 Not a triangle
47 2 100 2 Not a triangle
48 2 100 50 Not a triangle
Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 33
 Software Testing
Test Case A b C Expected output

49 2 100 50 Scalene
50 2 100 99 Isosceles
51 50 1 100 Not a triangle
52 50 1 1 Not a triangle
53 50 1 2 Isosceles
54 50 1 50 Not a triangle
55 50 1 99 Not a triangle
56 50 2 100 Not a triangle
57 50 2 1 Not a triangle
58 50 2 2 Isosceles
59 50 2 50 Not a triangle
60 50 2 99 Not a triangle
61 50 50 100 Isosceles
62 50 50 1 Isosceles
63 50 50 2 Equilateral
64 50 50 50 Isosceles
65 50 50 99 Not a triangle
Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 34
 Software Testing
Test Case A B C Expected output

66 50 99 1 Not a triangle
67 50 99 2 Not a triangle
68 50 99 50 Isosceles
69 50 99 99 Isosceles
70 50 99 100 Scalene
71 50 100 1 Not a triangle
72 50 100 2 Not a triangle
73 50 100 50 Not a triangle
74 50 100 99 Scalene
75 50 100 100 Isosceles
76 50 1 1 Not a triangle
77 99 1 2 Not a triangle
78 99 1 50 Not a triangle
79 99 1 99 Isosceles
80 99 1 100 Not a triangle
81 99 2 1 Not a triangle
82 99 2 2 Not a triangle
Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 35
 Software Testing
Test Case A b C Expected output

83 99 2 50 Not a triangle
84 99 2 99 Isosceles
85 99 2 100 Scalene
86 99 50 1 Not a triangle
87 99 50 2 Not a triangle
88 99 50 50 Isosceles
89 99 50 99 Isosceles
90 99 50 100 Scalene
91 99 99 1 Isosceles
92 99 99 2 Isosceles
93 99 99 50 Isosceles
94 99 99 99 Equilateral
95 99 99 100 Isosceles
96 99 100 1 Not a triangle
97 99 100 2 Scalene
98 99 100 50 Scalene
99 99 100 99 Isosceles
100 99 100 100 Isosceles

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 36
 Software Testing
Test Case A b C Expected output

101 100 1 1 Not a triangle

102 100 1 2 Not a triangle
103 100 1 50 Not a triangle
104 100 1 99 Not a triangle
105 100 1 100 Isosceles
106 100 2 1 Not a triangle
107 100 2 2 Not a triangle
108 100 2 50 Not a triangle
109 100 2 99 Scalene
110 100 2 100 Isosceles
111 100 50 1 Not a triangle
112 100 50 2 Not a triangle
113 100 50 50 Not a triangle
114 100 50 99 Scalene
115 100 50 100 Isosceles
116 100 99 1 Not a triangle
117 100 99 2 Scalene
118 100 99 50 Scalene

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 37
 Software Testing
Test Case A b C Expected output

119 100 99 99 Isosceles

120 100 99 100 Isosceles
121 100 100 1 Isosceles
122 100 100 2 Isosceles
123 100 100 50 Isosceles
124 100 100 99 Isosceles
125 100 100 100 Equilateral

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 38
 Software Testing
Equivalence Class Testing
In this method, input domain of a program is partitioned into a finite number of
equivalence classes such that one can reasonably assume, but not be
absolutely sure, that the test of a representative value of each class is
equivalent to a test of any other value.
Two steps are required to implementing this method:

1. The equivalence classes are identified by taking each input condition and
partitioning it into valid and invalid classes. For example, if an input condition
specifies a range of values from 1 to 999, we identify one valid equivalence
class [1<item<999]; and two invalid equivalence classes [item<1] and
[item>999].

2. Generate the test cases using the equivalence classes identified in the
previous step. This is performed by writing test cases covering all the valid
equivalence classes. Then a test case is written for each invalid equivalence
class so that no test contains more than one invalid class. This is to ensure
that no two invalid classes mask each other.
Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 39
 Software Testing

Invalid input

Valid System
Outputs
inputs under test

Input domain Output domain

Fig. 7: Equivalence partitioning

Most of the time, equivalence class testing defines classes of the input domain.
However, equivalence classes should also be defined for output domain.
Hence, we should design equivalence classes based on input and output
domain.

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 40
 Software Testing
Example 8.7
Consider the program for the determination of nature of roots of a quadratic
equation as explained in example 8.1. Identify the equivalence class test
cases for output and input domains.

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 41
 Software Testing
Solution
Output domain equivalence class test cases can be identified as follows:

O1={<a,b,c>:Not a quadratic equation if a = 0}

O2={<a,b,c>:Real roots if (b2-4ac)>0}
O3={<a,b,c>:Imaginary roots if (b2-4ac)<0}
O4={<a,b,c>:Equal roots if (b2-4ac)=0}`
The number of test cases can be derived form above relations and shown
below:

Test case a b c Expected output

1 0 50 50 Not a quadratic equation
2 1 50 50 Real roots
3 50 50 50 Imaginary roots
4 50 100 50 Equal roots

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 42
 Software Testing
We may have another set of test cases based on input domain.
I1= {a: a = 0}
I2= {a: a < 0}
I3= {a: 1 ≤ a ≤ 100}
I4= {a: a > 100}
I5= {b: 0 ≤ b ≤ 100}
I6= {b: b < 0}
I7= {b: b > 100}
I8= {c: 0 ≤ c ≤ 100}
I9= {c: c < 0}
I10={c: c > 100}

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 Software Testing

Test Case a b c Expected output

1 0 50 50 Not a quadratic equation

2 -1 50 50 Invalid input
3 50 50 50 Imaginary Roots
4 101 50 50 invalid input
5 50 50 50 Imaginary Roots
6 50 -1 50 invalid input
7 50 101 50 invalid input
8 50 50 50 Imaginary Roots
9 50 50 -1 invalid input
10 50 50 101 invalid input

Here test cases 5 and 8 are redundant test cases. If we choose any value other
than nominal, we may not have redundant test cases. Hence total test cases are
10+4=14 for this problem.
Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 44
 Software Testing
Example – 8.9

Consider the triangle problem specified in a example 8.3. Identify the

equivalence class test cases for output and input domain.

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 45
 Software Testing
Solution
Output domain equivalence classes are:

O1={<x,y,z>: Equilateral triangle with sides x,y,z}

O1={<x,y,z>: Isosceles triangle with sides x,y,z}
O1={<x,y,z>: Scalene triangle with sides x,y,z}
O1={<x,y,z>: Not a triangle with sides x,y,z}
The test cases are:

Test case x y z Expected Output

1 50 50 50 Equilateral
2 50 50 99 Isosceles

3 100 99 50 Scalene
4 50 100 50 Not a triangle

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 46
 Software Testing
Input domain based classes are:

I1={x: x < 1}
I2={x: x > 100}
I3={x: 1 ≤ x ≤ 100}
I4={y: y < 1}
I5={y: y > 100}
I6={y: 1 ≤ y ≤ 100}
I7={z: z < 1}
I8={z: z > 100}
I9={z: 1 ≤ z ≤ 100}

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 47
 Software Testing
Some inputs domain test cases can be obtained using the relationship amongst x,y
and z.

I10={< x,y,z >: x = y = z}

I11={< x,y,z >: x = y, x ≠ z}
I12={< x,y,z >: x = z, x ≠ y}
I13={< x,y,z >: y = z, x ≠ y}
I14={< x,y,z >: x ≠ y, x ≠ z, y ≠ z}
I15={< x,y,z >: x = y + z}
I16={< x,y,z >: x > y +z}
I17={< x,y,z >: y = x +z}
I18={< x,y,z >: y > x + z}
I19={< x,y,z >: z = x + y}
I20={< x,y,z >: z > x +y}

Software Engineering (3 rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 48
 Software Testing
Test cases derived from input domain are:

Test case x y z Expected Output

1 0 50 50 Invalid input
2 101 50 50 Invalid input

3 50 50 50 Equilateral
4 50 0 50 Invalid input
5 50 101 50 Invalid input
6 50 50 50 Equilateral
7 50 50 0 Invalid input
8 50 50 101 Invalid input
9 50 50 50 Equilateral
10 60 60 60 Equilateral
11 50 50 60 Isosceles

12 50 60 50 Isosceles
13 60 50 50 Isosceles

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Test case x y z Expected Output

14 100 99 50 Scalene
15 100 50 50 Not a triangle
16 100 50 25 Not a triangle
17 50 100 50 Not a triangle
18 50 100 25 Not a triangle
19 50 50 100 Not a triangle
20 25 50 100 Not a triangle

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Decision Table Based Testing

Condition Entry
Stub True False
True False True False
C1
True False True False True False ---

C2

C3

Action a1 X X X
Stub X X X
a2 X X
X X X
a3
Table 2: Decision table terminology
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Test case design

C1:x,y,z are sides of a triangle? N Y

C2:x = y? -- Y N
C3:x = z? -- Y N Y N
C4:y = z? -- Y N Y N Y N Y N
a1: Not a triangle X

a2: Scalene X
a3: Isosceles X X X
a4: Equilateral X
a5: Impossible X X X

Table 3: Decision table for triangle problem

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Conditions F T T T T T T T T T T
C1 : x < y + z ?

C2 : y < x + z ? -- F T T T T T T T T T

C3 : z < x + y ? -- -- F T T T T T T T T

C4 : x = y ? -- -- -- T T T T F F F F

C5 : x = z ? -- -- -- T T F F T T F F

C6 : y = z ? -- -- -- T F T F T F T F

a1 : Not a triangle X X X

a2 : Scalene X

a3 : Isosceles X X X

a4 : Equilateral X

a5 : Impossible X X X

Table 4: Modified decision table

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Example 8.10

Consider the triangle program specified in example 8.3. Identify the

test cases using the decision table of Table 4.

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Solution
There are eleven functional test cases, three to fail triangle property, three
impossible cases, one each to get equilateral, scalene triangle cases, and
three to get on isosceles triangle. The test cases are given in Table 5.

Test case x y z Expected Output

1 4 1 2 Not a triangle
2 1 4 2 Not a triangle
3 1 2 4 Not a triangle
4 5 5 5 Equilateral
5 ? ? ? Impossible
6 ? ? ? Impossible
7 2 2 3 Isosceles
8 ? ? ? Impossible
9 2 3 2 Isosceles
10 3 2 2 Isosceles
11 3 4 5 Scalene

Test cases of triangle problem using decision table

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Self Study:
Cause Effect Testing

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Structural Testing
A complementary approach to functional testing is called structural / white box
testing. It permits us to examine the internal structure of the program.

Path Testing
Path testing is the name given to a group of test techniques based on judiciously
selecting a set of test paths through the program. If the set of paths is properly
chosen, then it means that we have achieved some measure of test thoroughness.

This type of testing involves:

1. generating a set of paths that will cover every branch in the program.

2. finding a set of test cases that will execute every path in the set of program
paths.

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Flow Graph
The control flow of a program can be analysed using a graphical representation
known as flow graph. The flow graph is a directed graph in which nodes are either
entire statements or fragments of a statement, and edges represents flow of control.

Fig. 14: The basic construct of the flow graph

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Example 8.13
Consider the problem for the determination of the nature of roots of a quadratic
equation. Its input a triple of positive integers (say a,b,c) and value may be from
interval [0,100].
The program is given in fig. 19. The output may have one of the following words:
[Not a quadratic equation; real roots; Imaginary roots; Equal roots]
Draw the flow graph and DD path graph. Also find independent paths from the DD
Path graph.

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Cont….
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Fig. 19: Code of quadratic equation problem

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Solution

Fig. 19 (a) : Program flow

graph

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Fig. 19 (b) : DD Path graph

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The mapping table for DD path graph is:
Flow graph DD Path graph Remarks
nodes corresponding
node
1 to 10 A Sequential nodes
11 B Decision node
12 C Intermediate node
13 D Decision node
14,15 E Sequential node
16 F Two edges are combined here
17 G Two edges are combined and decision node
18 H Intermediate node
19 I Decision node
20,21 J Sequential node
22 K Decision node
23,24,25 L Sequential node

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Flow graph DD Path graph Remarks
nodes corresponding
node
26,27,28,29 M Sequential nodes
30 N Three edges are combined
31 O Decision node
32,33 P Sequential node
34,35,36 Q Sequential node
37 R Three edges are combined here
38,39 S Sequential nodes with exit node

An Independent path is any path through the DD path graph that introduces at least
one new set of processing statements or new conditions. Therefore, an independent
path must move along at least one edge that has not been traversed before the path
is defined.
Independent paths are:
(i) ABGOQRS (ii) ABGOPRS
(iii) ABCDFGOQRS (iv) ABCDEFGOPRS
(v) ABGHIJNRS (vi) ABGHIKLNRS
(vi) ABGHIKMNRS
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Independent paths are:
(i) ABGOQRS (ii) ABGOPRS
(iii) ABCDFGOQRS (iv) ABCDEFGOPRS
(v) ABGHIJNRS (vi) ABGHIKLNRS
(vi) ABGHIKMNRS

Fig. 19 (b) : DD Path graph

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Example 8.14
Consider a program given in Fig.8.20 for the classification of a triangle. Its input is a
triple of positive integers (say a,b,c) from the interval [1,100]. The output may be
[Scalene, Isosceles, Equilateral, Not a triangle].
Draw the flow graph & DD Path graph. Also find the independent paths from the DD
Path graph.

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Fig. 20 : Code of triangle classification problem

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Solution :

Flow graph of
triangle problem is:

Fig.8. 20 (a): Program flow graph

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The mapping table for DD path graph is:
Flow graph DD Path graph Remarks
nodes corresponding
node

1 TO 9 A Sequential nodes

10 B Decision node

11 C Decision node

12, 13 D Sequential nodes

14 E Two edges are joined here

15, 16, 17 F Sequential nodes

18 G Decision nodes plus joining of two edges

19 H Decision node

20, 21 I Sequential nodes

22 J Decision node

23, 24 K Sequential nodes

25, 26, 27 L Sequential nodes

Cont….
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Flow graph DD Path graph Remarks

nodes corresponding
node
28 M Three edges are combined here
29 N Decision node
30, 31 O Sequential nodes
32, 33, 34 P Sequential nodes
35 Q Three edges are combined here
36, 37 R Sequential nodes with exit node

Fig. 20 (b): DD Path graph

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DD Path graph is given in Fig. 20 (b)

Independent paths are:

(i) ABFGNPQR
(ii) ABFGNOQR
(iii) ABCEGNPQR
(iv) ABCDEGNOQR
(v) ABFGHIMQR
(vi) ABFGHJKMQR
(vii)ABFGHJMQR

Fig. 20 (b): DD Path graph

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Cyclomatic Complexity

McCabe’s cyclomatic metric V(G) = e – n + 2P.

For example, a flow graph shown in in Fig. 21 with entry node ‘a’ and exit node ‘f’.

Fig. 21: Flow graph

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The value of cyclomatic complexity can be calculated as :
V(G) = 9 – 6 + 2 = 5
Here e = 9, n = 6 and P =1

There will be five independent paths for the flow graph illustrated in Fig. 21.
Path 1 : a c f
Path 2 : a b e f
Path 3 : a d c f
Path 4 : a b e a c f or a b e a b e f
Path 5 : a b e b e f

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Several properties of cyclomatic complexity are stated below:

1. V(G) ≥1

2. V (G) is the maximum number of independent paths in graph G.

3. Inserting & deleting functional statements to G does not affect V(G).

4. G has only one path if and only if V(G)=1.

5. Inserting a new row in G increases V(G) by unity.

6. V(G) depends only on the decision structure of G.

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The role of P in the complexity calculation V(G)=e-n+2P is required to be understood
correctly. We define a flow graph with unique entry and exit nodes, all nodes
reachable from the entry, and exit reachable from all nodes. This definition would
result in all flow graphs having only one connected component. One could, however,
imagine a main program M and two called subroutines A and B having a flow graph
shown in Fig. 22.

Fig. 22
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Let us denote the total graph above with 3 connected components as

V ( M  A  B ) e  n  2 P

= 13-13+2*3
=6

This method with P  1 can be used to calculate the complexity of a

collection of programs, particularly a hierarchical nest of subroutines.

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Notice that V ( M  A  B ) V ( M )  V ( A)  V ( B ) 6 . In general, the

complexity of a collection C of flow graphs with K connected components is
equal to the summation of their complexities. To see this let C i,1 ≤ I ≤ K
denote the k distinct connected component, and let ei and ni be the number of edges
and nodes in the ith-connected component. Then

k k
V (C ) e  n  2 p  ei   n  2K i
i 1 i 1

k k
 (ei  ni  2)  V (Ci )
i 1 i 1

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Two alternate methods are available for the complexity calculations.

1. Cyclomatic complexity V(G) of a flow graph G is equal to the number of

predicate (decision) nodes plus one.
V(G)=  +1
Where  is the number of predicate nodes contained in the flow graph
G.

2. Cyclomatic complexity is equal to the number of regions of the flow

graph.

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Example 8.15
Consider a flow graph given in Fig. 23 and calculate the cyclomatic
complexity by all three methods.

Fig. 23

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Solution
Cyclomatic complexity can be calculated by any of the three methods.

1. V(G) = e – n + 2P
= 13 – 10 + 2 = 5

2. V(G) =π+1
=4+1=5

3. V(G) = number of regions

=5

Therefore, complexity value of a flow graph in Fig. 23 is 5.

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Example 8.17

Consider the quadratic equation problem given in example 8.13 with its DD
Path graph. Find the cyclomatic complexity:

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Solution

Number of nodes (n) = 19

Number of edges (e) = 24
(i) V(G) = e – n + 2P = 24 – 19 + 2 = 7
(ii) V(G) = π + 1 = 6 + 1 = 7
(iii) V(G) = Number of regions = 7

Hence cyclomatic complexity is 7 meaning thereby, seven

independent paths in the DD Path graph.

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Example 8.18

Consider the classification of triangle problem given in example 8.14. Find

the cyclomatic complexity.

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Solution

Number of edges (e) = 23

Number of nodes (n) =18
(i) V(G) = e – n + 2P = 23 – 18 + 2 = 7
(ii) V(G) = π + 1 = 6 + 1 = 7
(iii) V(G) = Number of regions = 7

The cyclomatic complexity is 7. Hence, there are seven independent

paths as given in example 8.14.

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Graph Matrices
A graph matrix is a square matrix with one row and one column for every node in the
graph. The size of the matrix (i.e., the number of rows and columns) is equal to the
number of nodes in the flow graph. Some examples of graphs and associated
matrices are shown in fig. 24.

Fig. 24 (a): Flow graph and graph matrices

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Fig. 24 (b): Flow graph and graph matrices

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Fig. 24 (c): Flow graph and graph matrices

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Fig. 25 : Connection matrix of flow graph shown in Fig. 24 (c)

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The square matrix represent that there are two path ab and cd from node 1 to
node 2.

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Example 8.19

Consider the flow graph shown in the Fig. 26 and draw the graph & connection
matrices. Find out cyclomatic complexity and two / three link paths from a node to
any other node.

Fig. 26 : Flow graph

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Solution
The graph & connection matrices are given below :

To find two link paths, we have to generate a square of graph matrix [A] and for three
link paths, a cube of matrix [A] is required.

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Data Flow Testing
Data flow testing is another from of structural testing. It has nothing to do with data
flow diagrams.

i. Statements where variables receive values.

ii. Statements where these values are used or referenced.

As we know, variables are defined and referenced throughout the program. We

may have few define/ reference anomalies:

i. A variable is defined but not used/ referenced.

ii. A variable is used but never defined.

iii. A variable is defined twice before it is used.

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Definitions
The definitions refer to a program P that has a program graph G(P) and a set of
program variables V. The G(P) has a single entry node and a single exit node. The
set of all paths in P is PATHS(P)

(i) Defining Node: Node n ϵ G(P) is a defining node of the variable v ϵ V,

written as DEF (v, n), if the value of the variable v is defined at the statement
fragment corresponding to node n.

(ii) Usage Node: Node n ϵ G(P) is a usage node of the variable v ϵ V, written as
USE (v, n), if the value of the variable v is used at statement fragment
corresponding to node n. A usage node USE (v, n) is a predicate use (denote
as p) if statement n is a predicate statement otherwise USE (v, n) is a
computation use (denoted as c).

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(iii) Definition use: A definition use path with respect to a variable v (denoted
du-path) is a path in PATHS(P) such that, for some v ϵ V, there are define and
usage nodes DEF(v, m) and USE(v, n) such that m and n are initial
and final nodes of the path.

(iv) Definition clear : A definition clear path with respect to a variable v (denoted
dc-path) is a definition use path in PATHS(P) with initial and final nodes DEF
(v, m) and USE (v, n), such that no other node in the path is a defining node of v.

The du-paths and dc-paths describe the flow of data across source statements from
points at which the values are defined to points at which the values are used. The
du-paths that are not definition clear are potential trouble spots.

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Hence, our objective is to find all du-paths and then identity those du-paths which are
not dc-paths. The steps are given in Fig. 27. We may like to generate specific test
cases for du-paths that are not dc-paths.

Fig. 27 : Steps for data flow testing

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Example 8.20

Consider the program of the determination of the nature of roots of a quadratic

equation. Its input is a triple of positive integers (say a,b,c) and values for each of
these may be from interval [0,100]. The program is given in Fig. 19. The output may
have one of the option given below:
(i) Not a quadratic program
(ii) real roots
(iii) imaginary roots
(iv) equal roots
(v) invalid inputs
Find all du-paths and identify those du-paths that are definition clear.

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Solution

Step I: The program flow graph is given in Fig. 19 (a). The variables used in the
program are a,b,c,d, validinput, D.
Step II: DD Path graph is given in Fig. 19(b). The cyclomatic complexity of this graph
is 7 indicating there are seven independent paths.

Step III: Define/use nodes for all variables are given below:

Variable Defined at node Used at node

a 6 11,13,18,20,24,27,28
b 8 11,18,20,24,28

c 10 11,18

d 18 19,22,23,27
D 23, 27 24,28
Validinput 3, 12, 14 17,31

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Step IV: The du-paths are identified and are named by their beginning and ending
nodes using Fig. 19 (a).
Variable Path (beginning, end) nodes Definition clear ?
6, 11 Yes
a
6, 13 Yes
6, 18 Yes
6, 20 Yes
6, 24 Yes
6, 27 Yes
6, 28 Yes
8, 11 Yes
b 8, 18 Yes
8, 20 Yes
8, 24 Yes
8, 28 Yes

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Variable Path (beginning, end) nodes Definition clear ?
10, 11 Yes
c
10, 18 Yes
d 18, 19 Yes
18, 22 Yes
18, 23 Yes
18, 27 Yes
D 23, 24 Yes
23, 28 Path not possible
27, 24 Path not possible
27, 28 Yes
3, 17 no
validinput
3, 31 no
12, 17 no
12, 31 no
14, 17 yes
14, 31 yes
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Example 8.21

Consider the program given in Fig. 20 for the classification of a triangle. Its
input is a triple of positive integers (say a,b,c) from the interval [1,100]. The
output may be:
[Scalene, Isosceles, Equilateral, Not a triangle, Invalid inputs].
Find all du-paths and identify those du-paths that are definition clear.

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Solution

Step I: The program flow graph is given in Fig. 20 (a). The variables used in
the program are a,b,c, valid input.

Step II: DD Path graph is given in Fig. 20(b). The cyclomatic complexity of
this graph is 7 and thus, there are 7 independent paths.
Step III: Define/use nodes for all variables are given below:

Variable Defined at node Used at node

a 6 10, 11, 19, 22
b 7 10, 11, 19, 22

c 9 10, 11, 19, 22

valid input 3, 13, 16 18, 29

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Step IV: The du-paths are identified and are named by their beginning and ending
nodes using Fig. 20 (a).

Variable Path (beginning, end) nodes Definition clear ?

5, 10 Yes
a
5, 11 Yes
5, 19 Yes
5, 22 Yes

7, 10 Yes
b 7, 11 Yes
7, 19 Yes
7, 22 Yes

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Variable Path (beginning, end) nodes Definition clear ?
9, 10 Yes
c
9, 11 Yes
9, 19 Yes
9, 22 Yes

3, 18 no
valid input
3, 29 no
12, 18 no
12, 29 no
16, 18 Yes
16, 29 Yes

Hence total du-paths are 18 out of which four paths are not definition clear

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Levels of Testing
There are 3 levels of testing:
i. Unit Testing
ii. Integration Testing
iii. System Testing

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Unit Testing

There are number of reasons in support of unit testing than testing the entire product.

1. The size of a single module is small enough that we can locate an error
fairly easily.

2. The module is small enough that we can attempt to test it in some

demonstrably exhaustive fashion.

3. Confusing interactions of multiple errors in widely different parts of the

software are eliminated.

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There are problems associated with testing a module in isolation. How do we run a
module without anything to call it, to be called by it or, possibly, to output
intermediate values obtained during execution? One approach is to construct an
appropriate driver routine to call if and, simple stubs to be called by it, and to insert
output statements in it.

Stubs serve to replace modules that are subordinate to (called by) the module to be
tested. A stub or dummy subprogram uses the subordinate module’s interface, may
do minimal data manipulation, prints verification of entry, and returns.

This overhead code, called scaffolding represents effort that is import to testing, but
does not appear in the delivered product as shown in Fig. 29.

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Fig. 29 : Scaffolding required testing a program unit (module)

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Integration Testing

The purpose of unit testing is to determine that each independent module is

correctly implemented. This gives little chance to determine that the interface
between modules is also correct, and for this reason integration testing must be
performed. One specific target of integration testing is the interface: whether
parameters match on both sides as to type, permissible ranges, meaning and
utilization.

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Fig. 30 : Three different integration approaches

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System Testing

Of the three levels of testing, the system level is closet to everyday experiences.
We test many things; a used car before we buy it, an on-line cable network
service before we subscribe, and so on. A common pattern in these familiar
forms is that we evaluate a product in terms of our expectations; not with respect
to a specification or a standard. Consequently, goal is not to find faults, but to
demonstrate performance. Because of this we tend to approach system testing
from a functional standpoint rather than from a structural one. Since it is so
intuitively familiar, system testing in practice tends to be less formal than it might
be, and is compounded by the reduced testing interval that usually remains
before a delivery deadline.

Petschenik gives some guidelines for choosing test cases during system testing.

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During system testing, we should evaluate a number of attributes of the
software that are vital to the user and are listed in Fig. 31. These represent the
operational correctness of the product and may be part of the software
specifications.

Usable Is the product convenient, clear, and predictable?

Secure Is access to sensitive data restricted to those with authorization?

Will the product work correctly in conjunction with existing data,

Compatible
software, and procedures?

Do adequate safeguards against failure and methods for recovery

Dependable
exist in the product?

Documented Are manuals complete, correct, and understandable?

Fig. 31 : Attributes of software to be tested during system testing

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Validation Testing
o It refers to test the software as a complete product.
o This should be done after unit & integration testing.
o Alpha, beta & acceptance testing are nothing but the various ways of involving
customer during testing.

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 Software Testing
Validation Testing
o IEEE has developed a standard (IEEE standard 1059-1993) entitled “ IEEE guide
for software verification and validation “ to provide specific guidance about
planning and documenting the tasks required by the standard so that the
customer may write an effective plan.
o Validation testing improves the quality of software product in terms of functional
capabilities and quality attributes.

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 Software Testing
The Art of Debugging
The goal of testing is to identify errors (bugs) in the program. The process of
testing generates symptoms, and a program’s failure is a clear symptom of the
presence of an error. After getting a symptom, we begin to investigate the cause
and place of that error. After identification of place, we examine that portion to
identify the cause of the problem. This process is called debugging.

Debugging Techniques
Pressman explained few characteristics of bugs that provide some clues.

1. “The symptom and the cause may be geographically remote. That is, the
symptom may appear in one part of a program, while the cause may actually be
located in other part. Highly coupled program structures may complicate this
situation.

2. The symptom may disappear (temporarily) when another error is corrected.

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 Software Testing

3. The symptom may actually be caused by non errors (e.g. round off inaccuracies).

4. The symptom may be caused by a human error that is not easily traced.

5. The symptom may be a result of timing problems rather than processing

problems.

6. It may be difficult to accurately reproduce input conditions (e.g. a real time

application in which input ordering is indeterminate).

7. The symptom may be intermittent. This is particularly common in embedded

system that couple hardware with software inextricably.

8. The symptom may be due to causes that are distributed across a number of tasks
running on different processors”.

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 Software Testing

Induction approach

 Locate the pertinent data

 Organize the data

 Devise a hypothesis

 Prove the hypothesis

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 Software Testing

Fig. 32 : The inductive debugging process

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 Software Testing

Deduction approach

 Enumerate the possible causes or hypotheses

 Use the data to eliminate possible causes

 Refine the remaining hypothesis

 Prove the remaining hypothesis

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 Software Testing

Fig. 33 : The inductive debugging process

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 Software Testing
Testing Tools
One way to improve the quality & quantity of testing is to make the process as
pleasant as possible for the tester. This means that tools should be as concise,
powerful & natural as possible.

The two broad categories of software testing tools are :

 Static

 Dynamic

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 Software Testing
There are different types of tools available and some are listed below:

1. Static analyzers, which examine programs systematically and automatically.

2. Code inspectors, who inspect programs automatically to make sure they adhere
to minimum quality standards.

3. standards enforcers, which impose simple rules on the developer.

4. Coverage analysers, which measure the extent of coverage.

5. Output comparators, used to determine whether the output in a program is

appropriate or not.

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 Software Testing

6. Test file/ data generators, used to set up test inputs.

7. Test harnesses, used to simplify test operations.

8. Test archiving systems, used to provide documentation about programs.

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 Multiple Choice Questions
Note: Choose most appropriate answer of the following questions:
8.1 Software testing is:
(a) the process of demonstrating that errors are not present
(b) the process of establishing confidence that a program does what it is supposed
to do
(c) the process of executing a program to show it is working as per specifications
(d) the process of executing a program with the intent of finding errors
8.2 Software mistakes during coding are known as:
(a) failures (b) defects
(c) bugs (d) errors
8.3 Functional testing is known as:
(a) Structural testing (b) Behavior testing
(c) Regression testing (d) None of the above
8.4 For a function of n variables, boundary value analysis yields:
(a) 4n+3 test cases (b) 4n+1 test cases
(c) n+4 test cases (d) None of the above
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 Multiple Choice Questions
8.5 For a function of two variables, how many cases will be generated by
robustness testing?
(a) 9 (b) 13
(c) 25 (d) 42
8.6 For a function of n variables robustness testing of boundary value analysis yields:
(a) 4n+1 (b) 4n+3
(c) 6n+1 (d) None of the above
8.7 Regression testing is primarily related to:
(a) Functional testing (b) Data flow testing
(c) Development testing (d) Maintenance testing
8.8 A node with indegree=0 and out degree ≠ 0 is called
(a) Source node (b) Destination node
(c) Transfer node (d) None of the above
8.9 A node with indegree ≠ 0 and out degree=0 is called
(a) Source node (b) Predicate node
(c) Destination node (d) None of the above
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 Multiple Choice Questions
8.10 A decision table has
(a) Four portions (b) Three portions
(c) Five portions (d) Two portions
8.11 Beta testing is carried out by
(a) Users (b) Developers
(c) Testers (d) All of the above
8.12 Equivalence class partitioning is related to
(a) Structural testing (b) Blackbox testing
(c) Mutation testing (d) All of the above
8.13 Cause effect graphing techniques is one form of
(a) Maintenance testing (b) Structural testing
(c) Function testing (d) Regression testing
8.14 During validation
(a) Process is checked (b) Product is checked
(c) Developer’s performance is evaluated (d) The customer checks the product

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 Multiple Choice Questions
8.15 Verification is
(a) Checking the product with respect to customer’s expectation
(b) Checking the product with respect to specifications
(c) Checking the product with respect to the constraints of the project
(d) All of the above
8.16 Validation is
(a) Checking the product with respect to customer’s expectation
(b) Checking the product with respect to specifications
(c) Checking the product with respect to the constraints of the project
(d) All of the above
8.17 Alpha testing is done by
(a) Customer (b) Tester
(c) Developer (d) All of the above
8.18 Site for Alpha testing is
(a) Software company (b) Installation place
(c) Any where (d) None of the above
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 Multiple Choice Questions
8.19 Site for Beta testing is
(a) Software company (b) User’s site
(c) Any where (d) All of the above
8.20 Acceptance testing is done by
(a) Developers (b) Customers
(c) Testers (d) All of the above
8.21 One fault may lead to
(a) One failure (b) No failure
(c) Many failure (d) All of the above
8.22 Test suite is
(a) Set of test cases (b) Set of inputs
(c) Set of outputs (d) None of the above
8.23 Behavioral specification are required for:
(a) Modeling (b) Verification
(c) Validation (d) None of the above

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 Multiple Choice Questions
8.24 During the development phase, the following testing approach is not adopted
(a) Unit testing (b) Bottom up testing
(c) Integration testing (d) Acceptance testing
8.25 Which is not a functional testing technique?
(a) Boundary value analysis (b) Decision table
(c) Regression testing (d) None of the above

8.26 Decision table are useful for describing situations in which:

(a) An action is taken under varying sets of conditions.
(b) Number of combinations of actions are taken under varying sets of conditions
(c) No action is taken under varying sets of conditions
(d) None of the above
8.27 One weakness of boundary value analysis and equivalence partitioning is
(a) They are not effective
(b) They do not explore combinations of input circumstances
(c) They explore combinations of input circumstances
(d) None of the above
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 Multiple Choice Questions
8.28 In cause effect graphing technique, cause & effect are related to
(a) Input and output (b) Output and input
(c) Destination and source (d) None of the above
8.29 DD path graph is called as
(a) Design to Design Path graph (b) Defect to Defect Path graph
(c) Destination to Destination Path graph (d) Decision to decision Path graph
8.30 An independent path is
(a) Any path through the DD path graph that introduce at least one new set of
processing statements or new conditions
(b) Any path through the DD path graph that introduce at most one new set of
processing statements or new conditions
(c) Any path through the DD path graph that introduce at one and only one new
set of processing statements or new conditions
(d) None of the above
8.31 Cyclomatic complexity is developed by
(a) [Link] (b) [Link]
(c) [Link] (d) Victor Basili
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 Multiple Choice Questions
8.32 Cyclomatic complexity is denoted by
(a) V(G)=e-n+2P (b) V(G)= ∏ +1
(c) V(G)=Number of regions of the graph (d) All of the above

8.33 The equation V(G)= ∏ +1 of cyclomatic complexity is applicable only if

every predicate node has
(a) two outgoing edges (b) three or more outgoing edges
(c) no outgoing edges (d) none of the above

8.34 The size of the graph matrix is

(a) Number of edges in the flow graph
(b) Number of nodes in the flow graph
(c) Number of paths in the flow graph
(d) Number of independent paths in the flow graph

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 Multiple Choice Questions
8.35 Every node is represented by
(a) One row and one column in graph matrix
(b) Two rows and two columns in graph matrix
(c) One row and two columns in graph matrix
(d) None of the above
8.36 Cyclomatic complexity is equal to
(a) Number of independent paths (b) Number of paths
(c) Number of edges (d) None of the above
8.37 Data flow testing is related to
(a) Data flow diagrams (b) E-R diagrams
(c) Data dictionaries (d) none of the above
8.38 In data flow testing, objective is to find
(a) All dc-paths that are not du-paths (b) All du-paths
(c) All du-paths that are not dc-paths (d) All dc-paths

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 Multiple Choice Questions
8.39 Mutation testing is related to
(a) Fault seeding (b) Functional testing
(c) Fault checking (d) None of the above
8.40 The overhead code required to be written for unit testing is called
(a) Drivers (b) Stubs
(c) Scaffolding (d) None of the above
8.41 Which is not a debugging techniques
(a) Core dumps (b) Traces
(c) Print statements (d) Regression testing
8.42 A break in the working of a system is called
(a) Defect (b) Failure
(c) Fault (d) Error
8.43 Alpha and Beta testing techniques are related to
(a) System testing (b) Unit testing
(c) acceptance testing (d) Integration testing

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 Multiple Choice Questions
8.44 Which one is not the verification activity
(a) Reviews (b) Path testing
(c) Walkthrough (d) Acceptance testing
8.45 Testing the software is basically
(a) Verification (b) Validation
(c) Verification and validation (d) None of the above
8.46 Integration testing techniques are
(a) Topdown (b) Bottom up
(c) Sandwich (d) All of the above
8.47 Functionality of a software is tested by
(a) White box testing (b) Black box testing
(c) Regression testing (d) None of the above
8.48 Top down approach is used for
(a) Development (b) Identification of faults
(c) Validation (d) Functional testing

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 Multiple Choice Questions
8.49 Thread testing is used for testing
(a) Real time systems (b) Object oriented systems
(c) Event driven systems (d) All of the above
8.50 Testing of software with actual data and in the actual environment is called
(a) Alpha testing (b) Beta testing
(c) Regression testing (d) None of the above

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 Exercises
8.1 What is software testing? Discuss the role of software testing during
software life cycle and why is it so difficult?
8.2 Why should we test? Who should do the testing?
8.3 What should we test? Comment on this statement. Illustrate the
importance of testing
8.4 Defined the following terms:
(i) fault (ii) failure
(iii) bug (iv) mistake
8.5 What is the difference between
(i) Alpha testing & beta testing
(ii) Development & regression testing
(iii) Functional & structural testing
8.6 Discuss the limitation of testing. Why do we say that complete testing is
impossible?
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 Exercises
8.7 Briefly discuss the following
(i) Test case design, Test & Test suite
(ii) Verification & Validation
(iii) Alpha, beta & acceptance testing
8.8 Will exhaustive testing (even if possible for every small programs)
guarantee that the program is 100% correct?
8.9 Why does software fail after it has passed from acceptance testing?
Explain.
8.10 What are various kinds of functional testing? Describe any one in detail.
8.11 What is a software failure? Explain necessary and sufficient conditions
for software failure. Mere presence of faults means software failure. Is it
true? If not, explain through an example, a situation in which a failure
will definitely occur.
8.12 Explain the boundary value analysis testing techniques with the help of
an example.
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 Exercises
8.13 Consider the program for the determination of next date in a calendar.
Its input is a triple of day, month and year with the following range
1 ≤ month ≤ 12
1 ≤ day ≤ 31
1900 1 ≤ year ≤ 2025
The possible outputs would be Next date or invalid date. Design
boundary value, robust and worst test cases for this programs.

8.14 Discuss the difference between worst test case and adhoc test case
performance evaluation by means of testing. How can we be sure that the
real worst case has actually been observed?
8.15 Describe the equivalence class testing method. Compare this with
boundary value analysis techniques

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 Exercises
8.16 Consider a program given below for the selection of the largest of
numbers

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 Exercises
(i) Design the set of test cases using boundary value analysis technique and
equivalence class testing technique.
(ii) Select a set of test cases that will provide 100% statement coverage.
(iii) Develop a decision table for this program.
8.17 Consider a small program and show, why is it practically impossible to
do exhaustive testing?
8.18 Explain the usefulness of decision table during testing. Is it really
effective? Justify your answer.
8.19 Draw the cause effect graph of the program given in exercise 8.16.
8.20 Discuss cause effect graphing technique with an example.
8.21 Determine the boundary value test cases the extended triangle problem
that also considers right angle triangles.

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 Exercises
8.22 Why does software testing need extensive planning? Explain.
8.23 What is meant by test case design? Discuss its objectives and indicate
the steps involved in test case design.
8.24 Let us consider an example of grading the students in an academic
institution. The grading is done according to the following rules:

Generate test cases using equivalence class testing technique

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 Exercises
8.25 Consider a program to determine whether a number is ‘odd’ or ‘even’
and print the message
NUMBER IS EVEN
Or
NUMBER IS ODD
The number may be any valid integer.
Design boundary value and equivalence class test cases.
8.26 Admission to a professional course is subject to the following
conditions:

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 Exercises
If aggregate marks of an eligible candidate are more than 225, he/she will be
eligible for honors course, otherwise he/she will be eligible for pass course.
The program reads the marks in the three subjects and generates the
following outputs:
(a) Not Eligible
(b) Eligible to Pass Course
(c) Eligible to Honors Course
Design test cases using decision table testing technique.
8.27 Draw the flow graph for program of largest of three numbers as shown
in exercise 8.16. Find out all independent paths that will guarantee that
all statements in the program have been tested.
8.28 Explain the significance of independent paths. Is it necessary to look for
a tool for flow graph generation, if program size increases beyond 100
source lines?
8.29 Discuss the structure testing. How is it different form functional testing?

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 Exercises
8.30 What do you understand by structural testing? Illustrate important
structural testing techniques.
8.31 Discuss the importance of path testing during structural testing.
8.32 What is cyclomatic complexity? Explain with the help of an example.
8.33 Is it reasonable to define “thresholds” for software modules? For
example, is a module acceptable if its V(G) ≤ 10? Justify your answer.
8.34 Explain data flow testing. Consider an example and show all “du” paths.
Also identify those “du” paths that are not “dc” paths.
8.35 Discuss the various steps of data flow testing.
8.36 If we perturb a value, changing the current value of 100 by 1000, what
is the effect of this change? What precautions are required while
designing the test cases?

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 Exercises
8.37 What is the difference between white and black box testing? Is
determining test cases easier in back or white box testing? Is it correct to
claim that if white box testing is done properly, it will achieve close to
100% path coverage?
8.38 What are the objectives of testing? Why is the psychology of a testing
person important?
8.39 Why does software fail after it has passed all testing phases? Remember,
software, unlike hardware does not wear out with time.
8.40 What is the purpose of integration testing? How is it done?
8.41 Differentiate between integration testing and system testing.
8.42 Is unit testing possible or even desirable in all circumstances? Provide
examples to Justify your answer?
8.43 Peteschenik suggested that a different team than the one that does
integration testing should carry out system testing. What are some good
reasons for this?
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 Exercises
8.44 Test a program of your choice, and uncover several program errors.
Localise the main route of these errors, and explain how you found the
courses. Did you use the techniques of Table 8? Explain why or why not.
8.45 How can design attributes facilitate debugging?
8.46 List some of the problem that could result from adding debugging
statements to code. Discuss possible solutions to these problems.
8.47 What are various debugging approaches? Discuss them with the help of
examples.
8.48 Researchers and practitioners have proposed several mixed testing
strategies intended to combine advantages of various techniques
discussed in this chapter. Propose your own combination, perhaps also
using some kind of random testing at selected points.
8.49 Design a test set for a spell checker. Then run it on a word processor
having a spell checker, and report on possible inadequacies with respect
to your requirements.

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 Exercises
8.50 4 GLs represent a major step forward in the development of automatic
program generation. Explain the major advantage & disadvantage in the
use of 4 GLs. What are the cost impact of applications of testing and how
do you justify expenditures for these activities.

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