Chapter 4

Circuit Breaking and theory of Arc

quenching
 4.1 Introduction
• Circuit breaker is a mechanical switching device capable of making, carrying and
breaking currents under normal circuit conditions and also making, carrying for a
specified time, and automatically breaking currents under specified abnormal circuit
conditions such as those of short-circuits (faults).
• The function of a circuit breaker is to isolate the faulty part of the power system in case of
abnormal conditions such as faults. A protective relay detects abnormal conditions and
sends a tripping signal to the circuit breaker. After receiving the trip command from the
relay, the circuit breaker isolates the faulty part of the power system.
• A circuit breaker has two contacts – a fixed contact and a moving contact. The
contacts are placed in a closed chamber containing a fluid insulating medium
(either liquid or gas) which quenches (extinguishes) the arc formed between the
contacts.
• Under normal conditions the contacts remain in closed position. When the circuit
breaker is required to isolate the faulty part, the moving contact moves to interrupt
the circuit. On the separation of the contacts, an arc is formed between them and
the current continues to flow from one contact to the other through the
arc as shown in Figure . The circuit is interrupted (isolated) when the arc is finally
extinguished.
Art of Arc Quenching
• When the moving contact starts separating, the insulating fluid between the two contacts
experiences a vary high electric stress. The electric stress is almost inversely proportional
to the distance between two electrodes, i.e., between two contacts. Thus, at the instant of
contact separation, the insulating medium between the contacts is subjected to extremely
high electric stress leading to breakdown. The breakdown of the insulating medium
between the contacts results in formation of a conducting channel or an arc between the
contacts.
As the moving contact moves further away, the arc is also drawn along with it. The arc
which is in the plasma form continues to carry the pre-opening current. In spite of
physical separation of the two contacts, current continues to flow through the arc and
thus, the interruption is not effective. The interruption of the current takes place only
when the arc is finally quenched (extinguished) and ceases to exist. Thus, circuit breaking
may be called an art of arc quenching.
 FAULT CLEARING TIME OF A CIRCUIT BREAKER
• A circuit breaker is required in the power system to give
rapid fault clearance, in order to avoid overcurrent damage to
equipment and loss of system stability. The fault tripping
signal to the circuit breaker is derived from the protective
relay via the trip circuit. After fault inception, the relay
senses the fault and closes its contacts to
complete the trip circuit as shown in Fig. 14.1. The relay
takes some time to close its contacts. After closing of the
contacts of the trip circuit, the trip coil of the circuit breaker
is energized and the operating mechanism of the breaker
comes into operation. The contacts of the circuit breaker start
separating to clear the fault. On the separation of the
contacts, an arc is formed between them and the current
continues to flow through the arc. The fault is cleared when
the arc is finally extinguished.
Figure 14.3 shows the various components of fault clearing
time of a circuit breaker. The fault clearing time is the sum of
relaying time and breaker interrupting time.
• The various components of the fault clearing time of the circuit breaker are defined as follows:

Relaying time = Time from fault inception to the closure of trip circuit of CB.
Breaker opening time = Time from closure of the trip circuit to the opening of the contacts of the
circuit breaker.
Arcing time = Time from opening of the contacts of CB to final arc extinction.
Breaker interrupting time = Breaker opening time + arcing time
Fault clearing time = Relaying time + breaker interrupting time
Arc Voltage
Factors responsible for arc between the contacts


[Link] difference between the contacts.
When the contacts have a small separation, the Potential difference between them
is sufficient to maintain the arc. One way to extinguish the arc is to separate the
contacts to such a distance that Potential difference becomes inadequate to
maintain the arc. However, this method is impracticable in high voltage system
where a separation of many meters may be required.
2. ionized particles between contacts
The ionized particles between the contacts tend to maintain the arc. If the arc path
is demonized, the arc extinction will be facilitated. This may be achieved by cooling
the arc or by bodily removing the ionized particles from the space between the
contacts.
 Methods of Arc Extinction in
Circuit Breaker
• There are two methods of extinguishing the arc in circuit
breakers
[Link] resistance method
[Link] resistance or current zero method.
High Resistance Method
• In this method, arc resistance is made to increase with time so
that current is reduced to a value insufficient to maintain the
arc. Consequently, the current is interrupted or the arc is
extinguished.
• The principal disadvantage of this method is that enormous
energy is dissipated in the arc. Therefore, it is employed only in
DC circuit breakers and low-capacity AC circuit breakers.
• The resistance of the arc may be increased by
• Lengthening the arc – The resistance of the arc is directly proportional to its length. The
length of the arc can be increased by increasing the gap between contacts.
• Cooling the arc – Cooling removes the heat from the arc. Cooling is brought about
by bringing the arc in contact with cool air.

• Reducing X-section of the arc – If the area of X-section of the arc is reduced, the
voltage necessary to maintain the arc is increased. In other words, the resistance of
the arc path is increased. The cross-section of the arc can be reduced by letting the
arc pass through a narrow opening or by having smaller area of contacts.

• Splitting the arc – The resistance of the

arc can be increased by splitting the arc
into a number of smaller arcs in series.
Each one of these arcs experiences the
effect of lengthening and cooling. The arc
may be split by introducing some
conducting plates between the contacts.
Low Resistance or Current zero Method
• This method is employed for arc extinction in AC Circuits only. In this method, arc
resistance is kept low until current zero where the arc extinguishes naturally and is
prevented from restriking inspite of the rising voltage across the contacts.
• All modern high power AC Circuit Breakers employ this method for arc extinction. In an
AC system, current drops to zero after every half-cycle. At every current zero, the arc
extinguishes for a brief moment.
• Now the medium between the contacts contains ions and electrons so that it has small
dielectric strength and can be easily broken down by the rising contact voltage known
as restriking voltage.
• If such a break-down does occur, the arc will persist for another half-cycle. If
immediately after current zero, the dielectric strength of the medium between
contacts is built up more rapidly than the voltage across the contacts, the arc fails to
restrike and the current will be interrupted.

• The rapid increase of dielectric strength of the medium near current zero can be
achieved by
(a) causing the ionized particles in the space between contacts to recombine into
neutral molecules.
(b) sweeping the ionized particles away and replacing them by unionized particles.
• Therefore, the real problem in AC arc interruption is to rapidly deionize the medium between
contacts as soon as the current becomes zero so that the rising contact voltage or
restriking voltage cannot breakdown the space between contacts. The de-ionization of the
medium can be achieved by :
[Link] of the gap : The dielectric strength of the medium is proportional to the length
of the gap between contacts. Therefore, by opening the contacts rapidly, higher dielectric
strength of the medium can be achieved.
[Link] pressure: If the pressure in the vicinity of the arc, is increased, the density of the
particles constituting the discharge also increases. The increased density of particles causes
higher rate of de-ionization and consequently the dielectric strength of the medium between
contacts is increased.
[Link]: Natural combination of ionized particles takes place more rapidly if they are
allowed to cool. Therefore, dielectric strength of the medium between the contacts can be
increased by cooling the arc
[Link] effect: If the ionized particles between the contacts are swept away and replaced by un-
ionized particles, the dielectric strength of the medium can be increased consider-ably. This
may be achieved by a gas blast directed along the discharge or by forcing oil into the contact
space.
 4.1.4 Theories of Arc Interruption
• (i) Recovery rate theory (Slepain’s Theory)
(ii) Energy balance theory (Cassie’s Theory
Before going in details about these theories, we should know the
following terms.
• Restriking voltage: It may be defined as the voltage that appears across
the breaking contact at the instant of arc extinction.
• Recovery voltage : It may be defined as the voltage that appears across
the breaker contact after the complete removal of transient oscillations
and final extinction of arc has resulted in all the poles.
• Active recovery voltage : It may be defined as the instantaneous
recovery voltage at the instant of arc extinction.
• Arc voltage : It may be defined as the voltage that appears across the
contact during the arcing period, when the current flow is maintained in
the form of an arc. It assumes low value except for the point at which
the voltage rise rapidly to a peak value and current reaches to zero.
Arc voltage
• Arc voltage is the voltage that is
responsible for maintaining the arc
between the contacts of the circuit
breaker. At the time of circuit breaker
contacts opening, an arc is struck
between the contacts due to
ionization of medium surrounding the
contacts. A small potential difference
exists between the contacts and it is
responsible for maintaining the arc.
This voltage is called the Arc Voltage.
Restriking Voltage.
• Whenever arc interruption occurs at zero current instant, the voltage across
the circuit breaker gap will suddenly rise from zero to a very high value.
This high voltage will be transient in nature.
• The transient voltage that appears across the circuit breaker contacts
immediately after the arc extinction or at current zero during the arcing
period is called Restriking Voltage.
• This voltage is so named because the arc can restrike only during the
existence period of this transient voltage. If the arc does not restrike during
this transient period, it will not restrike later. This restriking voltage is also
known as Transient Recovery Voltage.
 Recovery Voltage :
• It is defined as the voltage appearing across the circuit
breaker contacts after the final arc extinction and after all the
transients die out (or disappears). The frequency of recovery
voltage is the same as the supply frequency.
• This voltage is of normal frequency RMS voltage which is
approximately equal to the system voltage.
Slepian's Theory or Recovery Rate Theory :
• In circuit breakers, the arc is formed due to the ionization of the gap
between its contacts. So, in order to extinguish the arc, the electrons and
ions present in the gap are to be removed immediately after the current
reaches a natural zero.
• Because the ionization will be minimum at current zero instant. The
removal of electrons and ions from the gap is possible in either of the two
different ways. They are,
• Recombining them into neutral molecules.
• Sweeping them away by inserting a suitable insulating medium into the gap.
• The arc is interrupted if the rate of removal of ions from the gap is faster
than the rate of ionization in the gap. In other words, if the dielectric
strength of the medium between the contacts is increased such that it is
always greater than the restriking voltage, the arc does not restrike after
the current zero interruption.
• As this theory describes the arc extinction process as a rate between
dielectric strength and restriking voltage, it is also called Voltage Rate
Theory.
• Limitations of Slepian's Theory :
• In this theory, the restriking voltage and rate of rising of dielectric strength are
assumed as comparable quantities but in actuality, this is wrong as the two quantities
are not similar.
• In this theory, the energy relation in the arc extinction is not considered.
• This theory is incomplete, as the concept of arcing phase is not covered.
• The assumption of restriking voltage and increase in dielectric strength as
independent quantities is not acceptable, as the dielectric strength calculations and
observation values do not match.
 Energy balance theory (Cassie’s Theory
• When the contact of circuit breaker is about to open, restriking voltage is zero, hence
generated heat would be zero and when the contacts are fully open there is infinite
resistance this again make no production of heat. We can conclude from this that the
maximum generated heat is lying between these two cases and can be approximated.
The circuit breaker is designed to remove this generated heat as early as possible by
cooling the gap, giving a blast of air or flow of oil at high velocity and pressure. If the
rate of removal of heat is faster than the rate of heat generation the arc is extinguished.
If the rate of heat generation is more than the rate of heat dissipation, the space breaks
down again resulting in an arc for another half cycle.
Mathematical expression for active recovery
voltage in a 3-phase circuit
• Let phase to neutral (rms) value of the system voltage be V volts. Hence, maximum value of phase
to neutral voltage is given as
= √2V
The active recovery voltage between phase and neutral is given as sin 𝜑
• In general, active recovery voltage can be given as
𝑉𝑟 = sin 𝜑
Where 𝑉𝑟 is the phase to phase value of active recovery voltage
is the demagnetizing factor due to which the recovery voltage will be less than the system voltage
=
is a condition or phase factor i.e., it depends on the condition whether the symmetrical fault is
grounded or not i.e., its value is 1 if the fault involves ground and 1.5 for ungrounded fault
is a third constant whose value is unity if the active recovery voltage between phase and neutral is
to be obtained and its value is √3 if the active recovery voltage between two lines is desired.
Mathematical expression for Restriking Voltage Transient

• restriking-voltage-transient
 Restriking transients
• Restriking transients occur in electrical circuits when the
current is interrupted and an arc is re-established between the
contacts of a switching device, such as a circuit breaker. This
phenomenon can produce high-frequency oscillations and
overvoltages that may stress the electrical insulation and other
components within the system.

• Restriking voltage transients, and consequently their respective circuits can generally be
placed under two main headings.
Single frequency Oscillatory Transients
Double frequency Oscillatory Transients
Single frequency oscillatory transients
• Single frequency oscillatory transients are a specific type of restrike transient characterized by a
single dominant frequency in the TRV waveform.
• The key aspect of a single frequency transient is the fault location. It occurs when a short circuit
happens on a feeder line positioned beyond the circuit breaker's placement in the power system.
The current surges due to the short circuit. The circuit breaker interrupts the current by opening
its contacts. However, the power system's inherent inductance (L) and capacitance (C) on both
sides of the open breaker store energy. As the current flow is interrupted, the trapped energy
seeks a release path. This results in a voltage surge (TRV) appearing across the open contacts of
the circuit breaker.
• Single Frequency Oscillation: The crucial aspect of this type of transient is the characteristic
oscillation pattern of the TRV. The combined inductance and capacitance of the system on both
sides of the breaker act like a resonant circuit. This resonant circuit has a natural frequency at
which electrical energy oscillates most efficiently. The TRV waveform oscillates at this single
dominant frequency, determined by the formula: f = where f is the frequency, π (pi) is a
mathematical constant (approximately
• 3.14), L is the total inductance, and C is the total capacitance of the system involved.
Double frequency oscillatory transients
• Double frequency oscillatory transients are a distinct type of restrike transient
that arises due to the interaction between a circuit breaker's inherent
capacitance and the system's inductance during the fault interruption process.
• Double frequency transients share some initial stages with single frequency
transients. A short circuit occurs, followed by current interruption by the breaker
and the generation of a TRV.
• Every circuit breaker, due to the spacing between its open contacts, possesses a
small amount of capacitance (Cb). This inherent capacitance plays a crucial role
in double frequency transients.
• Unlike the system's larger capacitance (C), the breaker capacitance (Cb) is
relatively small. During the TRV oscillation, Cb rapidly discharges and charges
due to the changing voltage across the open contacts.
4.4 Interruption of capacitive current and Current
Chopping
• The interruption of capacitive current
refers to the process of breaking a circuit
that carries primarily capacitive loads.
Capacitive currents arise in electrical
systems that include elements like
capacitors, long transmission lines, or any
other equipment with significant
capacitance.
 Interruption of capacitive current
• [Link]
Challenges of Capacitive current interruption
1. Low Current Magnitude at Contact Separation
• Capacitive currents are typically lower in magnitude compared to other types of
currents because they lead the voltage by 90 degrees. While low current magnitudes
might initially seem advantageous for interruption, they can be problematic because
the energy stored in the capacitance of the system still needs to be managed
effectively. Low current magnitudes can also lead to current chopping.
2. Current Chopping
• Current chopping occurs when a circuit breaker interrupts the current flow before it
naturally reaches zero. In capacitive circuits, this can happen at very low current levels.
Chopping a capacitive current can generate high-frequency transient overvoltages as
the stored energy in the capacitor seeks a path to dissipate. These overvoltages can be
significantly higher than the normal system voltage, leading to stress on the insulation
and potentially causing flashovers or damage to other electrical components.
3. Voltage Restrike and Reignition
• Following the interruption of a capacitive current, the contacts within a circuit breaker
separate, and the dielectric strength between them begins to recover. However, if this
recovery is not sufficiently rapid relative to the rate at which the voltage across the
contacts increases, a restrike or reignition can occur. This means the circuit
momentarily re-establishes conduction despite the contacts being open. Restrikes lead
to additional stress on the breaker and can degrade its lifespan.
4. Very Fast Transient Overvoltages (VFTO)
• Capacitive switching especially in systems like Gas Insulated Substations (GIS) can
generate very fast transient overvoltages, which are characterized by their high
frequencies and significant energy content. These transients can propagate through
the system, causing interference and potential damage to equipment.
5. Dielectric Recovery Rate
• The rate at which the dielectric strength of the interrupting medium (air, SF6, or
vacuum) recovers after the arc is extinguished is critical in preventing restrikes. In
capacitive load interruptions, achieving sufficient dielectric recovery before the contact
gap voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage of the medium is a key challenge.
6. System-Wide Impacts
• The interruption of capacitive currents, particularly in systems with large capacitor
banks or extensive transmission networks, can affect the overall power system
stability. The sudden disconnection of capacitive loads can alter voltage levels and
potentially lead to voltage instability or oscillations, affecting power quality and system
reliability.
Mitigation Strategies
To address these challenges, various strategies and technologies are
employed:
• Use of Pre-insertion Resistors: These are used especially in high-
voltage applications to limit the initial charging current of the capacitor
bank, thus reducing the likelihood of overvoltages.
• Controlled Switching Devices: These devices help precisely control
the timing of circuit breaker operation to minimize the dielectric
stresses and manage transient phenomena more effectively.
• Advanced Circuit Breaker Technology: Circuit breakers with
improved arc-quenching capabilities and faster dielectric recovery,
such as vacuum and SF6 breakers, are essential.
• Surge Arresters: Installing surge arresters can help to mitigate the
impact of transient overvoltages caused by current chopping or
restrikes.
Current Chopping

• Current chopping phenomenon

HVDC Circuit Breaker
• The HVDC circuit breaker is a switching device that interrupts the flow
of abnormal direct current in the circuit. When the fault occurs in the
system, the mechanical contacts of the circuit breaker are pulled
apart and thus their circuit is open. In HVDC circuit breaker, circuit
breaking is difficult because the current flow through it is
unidirectional and there is no zero current.
• With DC circuit breakers, the problem is more complex as the DC
waveform does not have natural current zeros. Forced arc interruption
would produce high transient recovery voltage and restrike without
arc interruption and ultimate destruction of the breaker contacts.
• The following requirement must be completed to ensure safe circuit breaking in
HVDC circuit breaker,
 Creation of artificial zero crossing
 Dissipation of the stored energy inside the LC circuit
 Withstanding the voltage between its contact
 Prevention of arc restriking
• an LC circuit is introduced with the
circuit breaker in parallel which will
generate artificial zero current across
the line to safely break open the circuit.
• In this method, the Main breaker M is
connected on the live or hot line. An LC
circuit is connected in parallel with the
main breaker M using two switches
S1 & S2. The S2 switch connects the LC
circuit to the ground through a high
resistance R.
• Under normal condition, the main • During current interruption or fault
breaker M & the switch S2 is current, the switch S2 is opened &
closed, while the S1 is open. The the S1 is closed. The charged
current flows through the main capacitor starts discharging the
breaker M to the load & also current in reverse direction
through the switch S2 to charge through the main breaker M. The
the capacitor. The capacitor is LC circuit starts resonating &
charged through the high creates oscillating current that
resistance forces the current through the
• The main breaker M contacts separate at this zero current,
resulting in the extinction of the arc. As soon as the M contacts
open, the switch S2 is closed & S1 is opened. The S2 allows the
extra energy to dissipate in the heavy resistance R. This
prevents the arc from re-striking.

• Must Watch Video:

DC circuit breakers
 Numerical
• A 50 Hz, 11 KV generator is connected to a power system. The system inductance and capacitance per
phase are 10 mH and 0.02 𝜇 𝐹 respectively. Calculate (a) the maximum voltage across the contacts of
the circuit breaker at an instant when it passes through zero (b) frequency of transient oscillation (c)
average rate of rise of voltage up to the first peak of oscillation. Neglect resistance.
2. In a short circuit test on a 3-pole, 110 KV circuit breaker pf of the fault was 0.4, the
recovery voltage was 0.95 times full line value. The breaking current was symmetrical.
The frequency of oscillation of restriking voltage was 15,000 c/s. Estimate the average
rate of rise of restriking voltage. The neutral is grounded and the fault involves earth.
• Solution:
A 50 Hz 3-phase alternator with grounded neutral has an inductance of 1.6 mH per phase
and is connected to the bus bars through a circuit breaker. The capacitance to earth of the
circuit between the alternator and the circuit breaker is 0.0032 𝜇
𝐹 per phase. Due to a
short on the bus bars the breaker opens when the rms value of the current is 8,000 A.
Determine the frequency of oscillations, active recovery voltage, time for maximum
RRRV and maximum RRRV.

• Solution:
 Assignment ( You have to submit
this)
• In a 220 kV system, the reactance and capacitance up to the location of circuit breaker is 8
W and 0.025 mF, respectively. A resistance of 600 ohms
is connected across the contacts of the circuit breaker. Determine the following:
(a) Natural frequency of oscillation
(b) Damped frequency of oscillation
(c) Critical value of resistance which will give no transient oscillation
(d) The value of resistance which will give damped frequency of oscillation, one-fourth of
the natural frequency of oscillation

• Hint: