Hawassa University

College of Education and Behavioral Sciences

Program/Department of Educational
Planning and Management
Academic Year: 2018 E C (2025/2026).
Semester I
Course Title & Code: Management of Adult
and Non-formal Education (EdPM 3062)
Unit One: Adult Education: Meaning, Philosophy and Purpose
1.1. The concepts and characteristics of adulthood
and adult learners
1.1.1. What education is?
In its broadest context, the term education represents
the following components:
 The act or process of imparting and acquiring general
knowledge.
 Developing the powers of reasoning and judgment
and of preparing oneself or other intellectually for
mature life.
 Acquiring skills for a profession.
1.1.2. What an adult is
The definition of the term ‘adult’ varies from one
society to another, and has changed over time. While
some authors prefer to reserve the term only for a
specific hierarchical human developmental stage,
other use the term more loosely to refer to age –
related periods and tasks in life.
The boundaries that determine who is to be considered an adult
depends on:

a) actions related to legal age to be recruited in the

army, be able to drive a car , drink or vote,
b) activities referring to age that one can begin to work,
and
c) responsibilities such as marriage age, age to begin
supporting family.
However, defining adulthood by chronological age
differs from one nation to the other referring to age
that starts from 15 to 21.
To put it differently:
Adulthood can be defined in terms of:
Psychologically; who have stable personality and
ability and willingness to cope with difficulties that
present themselves.
Socially; Individuals who could fulfill the required
criteria for adulthood in the culture. Which in turn,
influences the lives of individuals within that culture.
Biologically; who are fully matured physically and
being beyond 18 years old.
Legally; a person who is fully grown or developed.
This is referred to as the age of majority, which is age
18 in most cultures.
Con’t…….
In most of the world, including the United States, the
United Kingdom, and China, the legal adult age is 18, with
some exceptions. However, we now know that the last
thing to fully develop is the insulation of nerve fibres
inside the brain, which gradually completes during the
twenties. Majority of scholars would argue, then, that a
20-year-old is still in adolescence, psychologically.
 Adolescence brains are not fully developed, especially
those regions of the brain that recognize and process risk.
It is now believed that young people's brains are not fully
developed until their 20s, perhaps 25 years old
What are the characteristics of adulthood?
Adults are characterized by:
 Maturity,
 Self-confidence,
 Autonomy,
 Decision-making,
 Generally more practical,
 Multi-tasking,
 Purposeful,
 Self-directed,
 Responsible as well as accountable
 Experienced. And
 Less open-minded and receptive to change.
All these traits/characteristics affect their motivation, as well as
their ability to learn.
1.1.3. Adult Education
Historically, adult education has arisen as response to
particular needs.
For this reason, adult education (even more so than
childhood and adolescent education) has a direct and
symbiotic (reciprocal) relationship with environment
in which it occurs.
Adult education responds to social change and tends
to feed further change.
Despite the various shades of meaning attributed to
adult education, the following are forwarded to
represent comprehensive and clear definitions of adult
education.
Con’t…..
Adult education is the practice of teaching and
educating adults.
 It is extension of educational opportunities to those
adults beyond the age of general public education who
feel a need for further training of any sort.
The other frequently cited definition was developed
by (UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Social
and Cultural Organization) and formally approved it
in 1976. It states
Con’t…..
the entire body of organized educational processes,
whatever the content, level and method, whether formal
or otherwise, whether they prolong or replace initial
education in schools, college and universities as well as
in apprenticeship, where by persons regarded as adult by
the society to which they belong develop their abilities,
enrich their knowledge, improve their technical or
professional qualifications or turn them in new direction
and bring about changes in their attitudes or behavior in
the two fold perspective of full personal development
and participation in balanced and independent social,
economic and cultural development.
Con’t…..
Adult education is intentional, systematic process
of teaching and learning by which persons who
occupy adult roles acquire new values, attitudes,
knowledge, skills, and disciplines.
Similarly, Houle (1972) defined adult education
as the process by which adults (alone or in groups,
or institutional settings) seek to improve
themselves or their society by increasing their
skills, knowledge and attitudes;
Con’t….
or it any processes by which individuals, groups, or
institutions try to help adults improve in these ways.
Once lacking the central social significance long
recognized for the formal schooling, adult education
expanded rapidly after 1950.
 Changing social, economic, and demographic forces
formed new educational types and organizations and
new levels of adult participation existed in various
forms.
Adult education is intended to provide an opportunity
to adults who either had no formal education or who
benefited little form their education.
Con’t….
The aim is to enhance their knowledge, attitudes and
skills so that each individual can fully participate and
contribute effectively both to his or her overall well
being and to society at large.
Adult education comprises of basic education,
continuing education and advanced training for
persons who have mastered their school obligations
and wish to acquire, update and broaden their
knowledge and skills at higher level.
1.1.4. Philosophy and Purpose of Adult Education
Purposes, as defined here, are the basic reasons
for conducting adult education.
Philosophies are the beliefs about the way in
which adult education should be conducted and
the general principles that guide practice.
A. The Major Philosophies of Adult Education
According to Sue M. Scott, there are various
philosophies of adult education. We will discuss five of
them: Liberal, Progressive, Behaviorist, Humanist, and
Radical.
These five philosophies provide a clear frame work to
understand the different definitions, goals and roles of
adult education.
 The following explains briefly the underline believes
each the philosophies on the purpose of adult education.
1. Liberal (Arts) Adult Education: Important contributors
to this philosophy: Aristotle, Plato, Rousseau and Piaget.
Con’t….
According to this philosophy, the purpose of adult
education is to develop, stimulate, and discipline the
mind through the study of principles and to seek
knowledge in order to gain a well-rounded’
perspective of the world.
2. Progressive Adult Education: Important contributes
to this philosophy: Dewey, Taylor and Whitehead.
According to this philosophy, the purpose of adult
education is to provide individuals with relevant
problems- solving skills that relate to their lives and to
provide practical knowledge.
Con’t….
3. Behavioral Adult Education: Important contributor
to this philosophy: Thorndike, Skinner and Mager.
According to this philosophy, the purpose of adult
education is to promote behavioral change and skill
development.
4. Humanistic Adult Education: Important contributor
to this philosophy: Roger, Maslow and Knowles.
According to this philosophy, the purpose of adult
education is to enhance personal growth and
development, to allow the learner to be involved in
knowledge construction and meaning making ‘and
cultivate the self.
Con’t….
5. Radical Adult Education: Important contributors to
this philosophy: Freire, Illich and Kozol.
According to this philosophy, the purpose of adult
education is to education as a means to bring about
fundamental social, cultural, political, and economic
change.
The purpose of adult education is to raise awareness
of issues of social justice, and to empower individuals
to fight for change.
B. Purpose of Adult Education
The basic purposes of adult education can be
categorized into four major categories:
a) To facilitate change in a dynamic society
This purpose of education derives from adults’ need
to remain current in the wake of rapid change and
increasing knowledge .
This has two dimensions, one social, and the other
material.
On the social dimension, as values, attitude, and
beliefs change, so must the behavior of adults change
Otherwise, if it does not, inappropriate role behavior
results (Mortimer an Simmons, 1978).
Con’t….
Inappropriate role behavior is generally seen
negatively, thus making life quite difficult for the
adult who fails to comprehend social change and
to act or change behavior accordingly.
The need to comprehend changes is expected role
behavior and to change accordingly has been the
basic purpose behind much of the adult education .
In short, in this dimension adult education aims at
helping adults to understand and adapt themselves
with value, attitude, social role behavior changes.
Con’t….
b) To support and maintain the good social order:
Obviously, the way in which the good social order is
maintained and supported depends on what is considered
to be good.
It has generally been accepted that the good order is
embodied/included/ in democracy.
True democracy, however, is considered as an ideal that
can be achieved only through conscious effort.
In this case, the major purpose of adult education is to
promote the democratic order.
Democracy can work only if citizens exercise rational and
informed choices. Furthermore, true democracy requires
active participation on the part of all citizens.
Con’t….

Since the voters are adults, it is the purpose of adult

education to assist them in informing and developing
critical skills.
As Baker (1939), stated adult education must help
adults to expand their knowledge horizon, to suspend
judgment until all the facts are known, to resist
prejudices to permit intellect to rule over feelings.
In relation to this, Bergevin (1967) wrote, “If
democracy is to survive, citizens must participate
intelligently in the affairs of the various institutions
that constitute democratic society. And intelligent
participation is depend on learning.”
Con’t….
c) To promote productivity:
 This is manifested on two levels. The first is the
organizational or institutional level where adult
education is conducted to enhance individual
performance as a means toward increasing
organizational effectiveness.
Adult education at this level is typically termed
training ,staff development , or human resource
development .
Adult education is also used to promote productivity
fat the societal level .
Con’t….
At this level, adult education programs enhance the
productivity of the general economy of the country.
The organization level: Adult education in the
workplace seeks to maximize organizational
effectiveness through the enhancement of employee or
member competence.
The training process generally begins with job or task
analysis which results in setting precise learning
objectives.
Then methods are selected, training is conducted and
evaluated, and the results of evaluation are fed back in
to the design process.
d) To enhance personal growth
The notion that the purpose of adult education is to
facilitate personal growth has several manifestations.
An adult education objective of personal growth is
the production of “the whole person” (Jacks,
1936).the whole person if one who can think
rationally and critically, who has a refined aesthetic
sense, who is of high moral character, and who
maintains good physical conditioning.
Similar to the notion of the whole person is the
notion that the objective of personal growth is
maturity.
Con’t….
Bergevin (1967) expressed, “The term’ maturity’ is
used here to mean the growth and development of the
individual towards wholeness in order to achieve
constructive spiritual , vocation , physical , political
and cultural goals .
A maturing person is continually advancing towards
understanding and constructive action in the movement
from mere survival to the discovery of himself/herself
both as a person and responsible member of society.
Personal growth oriented programs operate at least
three levels-on what Bryson (1936) terms the rational
level, the self actualization level, and the enrichment
level .
1.5. Forms of Adult Education
As education is a lifelong process that allows
the continuous development of a person’s
capabilities.
 It is not restricted to those who attend
classless with the intent of learning.
It can occur with or without a ‘teacher’, in
both formal and non-formal environments,
and can happen consciously or unconsciously.
Con’t…..
Most adults learn informally and naturally in
ordinary, everyday societal settings by reading,
watching television, and the like.
But this type of learning is both accidental and
unplanned.
 However, this does not mean that this type of
learning is not necessary.
There is also adult learning in the ‘formal’ and ‘non
formal’ instructional setting.
1.5.1. Informal Education
Informal education is the lifelong process by which
every person acquires and accumulates knowledge,
skills and, attitudes from daily experiences and
exposure to the environment- at home, at work, at
play; from the example and attitudes of family and
friends; from travel, reading newspapers and books;
or by listening to the radio or viewing films or
television.
Generally, informal education is unorganized and
often unsystematic; yet it accounts for the great bulk
of any person’s total lifetime learning- including that
of even highly educated person (Coombs and Ahmed,
1974).
Con’t…
In other words, informal learning is very closed to
what some people define as ‘experiential learning’.
 It is learning that goes on in daily life and can be
revived from daily experience, such as from family,
friends, peer groups, the media and other influences in
a person’s environment.
In short, informal education:
Involves learning that takes place in daily life
Does not have clearly stated objectives
Implies that the individual is not specifically aware of
learning that is taking place or such as visiting the
museum, having a conversation etc.
1.5.2. Formal Education
Formal education is highly institutionalized,
chronologically graded and hierarchically structured
‘education system’, running form primary school to
university (Coombs and Ahmed 1974).
The formal system refers to all those aspects of
education within the sphere of responsibilities and
influence of the Minister of Education, together with
private schools, universities and other institutions
which prepare students for officially recognized
qualifications.
Con’t……
This type of education is the most common and
provided for a large portion of the population of a
country.
In short, formal education :
Refers to an age-graded, hierarchically organized,
formally constituted system.
Promotes specific curricula for different levels of
development (i.e., age).
Each level must be completed before the student can
move ahead.
Required compulsory attendance up to a certain age.
Con’t…..
Has clearly stated objectives
Referees to educational provision and programs
embodies (part and parcel) of the regular education
system of a particular nation.
However, it has been recognized that formal educational
systems alone cannot respond to the challenges of
modern society.
Therefore, the formal system welcomes its reinforcement
by non-formal educational practices.
Thus, governments have recognized non-formal
education as a defector (effective) partner in the lifelong
learning process and are making it accessible for all.
1.5.3. Non-formal Education
Non-formal education is an educational
activity which is not structured and takes place
outside the formal system.
Non formal learning is often defined as
activities outside the formal learning setting,
characterized by voluntary as opposed to
mandatory participation (Crane et al., 1994).
According to European Youth Forum, non-
formal education corresponds to a collection of
teaching tools and learning schemes that are
seen as creative and innovative alternatives to
traditional and classical teaching systems.
Con’t….
It comprises learning activities taking place outside
the formal system, such as those carried out within
companies, by professional associations, or
independently by self-motivated adult learners.
A Council of Europe working group on non-formal
education has defined non-formal education as a
“planned program of personal and social education
designed to improve a range of skills and
competencies, outside but supplementary to the
formal educational curriculum.
Con’t…….

Participation is voluntary and the programs are

carried out by trained learners in the voluntary and/or
state sectors, and should be systematically monitored
and evaluated; the experience might also be
certificated.

 Such activities usually have clear learning activities

with usually have clear learning objectives, but vary
in duration, in objectives, and in certification for
acquired learning and in organizational structure.
Con’t…..
Similarly, Coombs and Ahmed (1974) define non-
formal education as any organized, systematic,
educational activity carried on outside the framework of
the formal system to provide selected type of learning to
particular subgroups in the population, adults as well as
children.
It is simple and flexible and can deliver at any place
convenient to the learners.
It is generally designed to meet the basic learning needs
of disadvantaged groups and can be given at any age.
Con’t….
Non-formal education programs are intended for the
acquisition, updating, broadening and deepening of
knowledge.
 The term is generally contrasted with formal and
informal education.
 In different contexts, non formal education covers
educational activities aimed at imparting adult
literacy, life skills, work skills, and basic education for
out of school children, youth and adults.
Con’t…..
In all planning and policy-making in relation to
education in developing countries, non-formal
education was seen as the panacea (universal remedy)
for all the ills of education in those societies (Freire,
1972).
 It is unwise to consider NFE as superior or inferior
of the formal education as each of has their distinct
purpose and advantages.
con’t…..
Although NFE education addresses some of the
problems in the formal education, it cannot be
considered as a panacea for all problems of education.
Non-formal education should be seen as one means of
lifelong learning.
Fordham (1993) pointed out the following seven
characteristics associated with non-formal education:
Need based curriculum and content
Concern with specific categories of person.
Con’t….
A focus on clearly defined purposes.
Flexibility in organization and methods.
Learner centered teaching-learning process
More practical rather than theoretical
Adult Non Formal Education programs organized at
various levels and with variable durations with
diversity, flexibility in program approaches.
Con’t…
In short, adult non formal education includes all
organized educational activities outside of the formal
educational system
 It includes anyone who desires to engage in these
activities (i.e., individuals do not need to have special
qualifications or a specific degree).
Have clearly stated objectives.
1.6. Distinction between ‘formal’, informal and
‘non-formal education Program
Informal education:
 It emerge as a result of interaction between learner
environment.
It is unplanned and unstructured.
 There is no certificate and recognition
It is a life time process and it has lifelong effect
It hasn’t structured curriculum
Examples:
 Listening to radio or watching TV programs on
educational or scientific themes and
 Reading texts on sciences or education in journals.
Con’t…..
Formal education:
 Is planned and structured program
 It covers from nursery-higher education
It has rigid curriculum
 Recognized and organized by ministry of education
It gives certificate, degree or other recognition
It is content based education system
Examples:
Nursery /higher education
Con’t……
Non formal education:
 Is planned and structured program for the purpose of
improving youth skill and confidence.
Which is provided in the form of short training or
course
 Which is provided in the interests of the learners
It has flexible curriculum
Examples:
Fashion and design courses, computer
training or life skill training.
Con’t….
THE END OF CHAPTER ONE