Module-05

CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS

Cross drainage works
• In an irrigation project, when the network of main canals, branch canals, distributaries, etc.
are provided, then these canals may have to cross the natural drainages like rivers, streams,
nallahs, etc at different points within the command area of the project.
• The crossing of the canals with such obstacle cannot be avoided. So, suitable structures
must be constructed at the crossing point for the easy flow of water of the canal and
drainage in the respective directions. These structures are known as cross-drainage works.
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Necessity of Cross-drainage works:
• The water-shed canals do not cross natural drainages. But in actual orientation of the
canal network, this ideal condition may not be available and the obstacles like natural
drainages may be present across the canal. So, the cross-drainage works must be provided
for running the irrigation system.
• At the crossing point, the water of the canal and the drainage get intermixed. So, far the
smooth running of the canal with its design discharge the cross-drainage works are
required.
• The site condition of the crossing point may be such that without any suitable structure,
the water of the canal and drainage cannot be diverted to their natural directions. So, the
cross-drainage works must be provided to maintain their natural direction of flow.
Types of Cross-Drainage Works:
Type I (Irrigation canal passes over the drainage)
a) Aqueduct
b) Siphon aqueduct
Type II (Drainage passes over the irrigation canal)
c) Super passage
d) Siphon super passage
Type III (Drainage and canal intersection each other of the same
level)
e) Level Crossing
f) Inlet and outlet
Aqueduct
• The aqueduct is just like a bridge where a canal is
taken over the deck supported by piers instead of a
road or railway.
• Generally, the canal is in the shape of a
rectangular trough which is constructed with
reinforced cement concrete. Sometimes, the trough
may be of trapezoidal section.
• An inspection road is provided along the side of the
trough.
• The bed and banks of the drainage below the trough
is protected by boulder pitching with cement
grouting.
• The section of the trough is designed according to
the full supply discharge of the canal.
 Selection of the Suitable Type
- Considerations of economy.
 the choice of a particular type depends
mainly upon the length of the aqueduct
(i.e. the width of the drainage) in relation
to the size of the canal.
 On a very small drain, type III is most
economical;
 On a very wide drainage, type I
is most economical.
 Type II is intermediate between type I and
type III.
 The exact choice of a particular type in a
particular case can be made by working
out the cost of all the types and then
choosing the

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Siphon Aqueduct
• The siphon aqueduct, the bed of the
drainage is depressed below the bottom
level of the canal trough by providing
sloping apron on both sides of the
crossing.
• The sloping apron may be constructed
by stone pitching or cement concrete.
• The section of the drainage below the
canal trough is constructed with cement
concrete in the form of tunnel. This
tunnel acts as a siphon.
• Cut off walls are provided on both sides
of the apron to prevent scouring.
Super Passage
• The super passage is just opposite of the
aqueduct. In this case, the bed level of
the drainage is above the fully supply
level of the canal.
• The drainage is taken through a
rectangular or trapezoidal trough of
channel which is constructed on the
deck supported by piers.
• The section of the drainage trough
depends on the high flood discharge.
• A free board of about 1.5 m should be
provided for safety.
Siphon Super Passage
• It is just opposite siphon aqueduct. In
this case, the canal passes below the
drainage trough. The section of the
trough is designed according to high
flood discharge.
• The bed of the canal is depressed
below the bottom level of the drainage
trough by providing sloping apron on
both sides of the crossing.
• The sloping apron may be constructed
with stone pitching or concrete slabs.
• The section of the canal below the
trough is constructed with cement
concrete in the form of tunnel which acts
as siphon.
Level Crossing • Inlet and Outlet
The level crossing is an arrangement provided • An inlet is simply an open cut or a pipe in a
to regulate the flow of water through the canal bank to admit drainage water into the
drainage and the canal when they cross each canal
other approximately at the same bed level. • An inlet may be provided for a small
drainage if its bed level is higher than the
canal FSL, provided it des not carry heavy
silt.
• If drainage water admitted into the canal is
discharged at a suitable site opposite the inlet
or on downstream, the arrangement is called
an inlet and outlet.
Site Selection for an Aqueduct
1. The canal bed level should be well above the high flood level (HFL) of the drain.
2. The width of the drain at the crossing should be minimum to reduce the length and cost of the
structure.
3. The foundation soil should be hard, stable, and impervious (preferably clay, murrum, or rock).
4. The drain should have stable banks and not be prone to erosion or meandering.
5. The canal alignment should be straight at the crossing with smooth entry and exit transitions.
6. The site should provide sufficient vertical clearance (headroom) between canal trough and
drain flow.
7. Topography should be favorable — avoiding steep slopes or deep valleys.
8. The site should be economical in terms of construction and maintenance cost.
9. There should be easy access for construction, inspection, and future repairs.
[Link] of construction materials (like sand, stone, cement) nearby is desirable.
Design Considerations
1. Hydraulic Design of Canal Trough:
o Cross-section designed to carry full supply discharge with permissible velocity.
o Manning’s or Lacey’s formula used to determine size and slope.
2. Headroom:
o Sufficient vertical clearance between the trough bottom and the drain’s HFL to avoid submergence.
3. Structural Design:
o Piers, arches, and floors designed for dead load, live load (water + silt), and uplift pressure.
o Adequate cut-offs provided to prevent piping and undermining.
4. Drainage Openings:
o Sized based on maximum expected flood discharge, with allowance for velocity and afflux.
5. Approach Transitions:
o Smooth transitions provided on both sides to reduce energy losses and prevent standing waves.
Advantages of Aqueducts
1. No Mixing of Waters:
The canal and drain remain completely separate — no risk of pollution or silt entry.
2. Safe Passage:
Both flows pass independently without mutual interference.
3. Continuous Canal Operation:
Irrigation supply remains uninterrupted during floods.
4. Economical for Small Drains:
When drain discharge is low and canal bed is high, it is cost-effective.
5. Low Maintenance:
Once constructed, requires little maintenance except periodic inspection.
No Flood Damage:
Canal is protected from floods in the drain due to elevation difference
Disadvantages
1. High Initial Cost:
Large quantity of masonry/concrete work and deep foundations increase cost.
2. Complex Construction:
Requires precise alignment, foundation treatment, and waterproofing.
3. Obstruction to Drain Flow:
Arches or piers can slightly obstruct the natural drain, causing afflux upstream.
4. Head Loss in Canal:
There is minor loss of head due to transitions and friction in the trough.
5. Difficult Foundation Work:
Especially when constructed on pervious or weak strata.
Limitations
1. Not Suitable for Large Drains:
When drain discharge is very large or flood levels are high, the structure becomes
uneconomical.
2. Topographical Constraints:
Requires sufficient difference between canal bed and drain bed levels.
3. Unsuitable in Soft or Alluvial Soil:
Foundation problems may arise due to seepage and uplift.
4. Maintenance of Expansion Joints:
In RCC aqueducts, joints require attention to prevent leakage.
5. High Head Requirement:
If canal bed has to be raised too much to achieve clearance, it affects the canal command
area.
Necessity or Situations Were Adopted
A level crossing is adopted in the following situations:
1. When the bed levels of the canal and drain are nearly the same.
2. When the discharge of the drain is much larger than that of the canal, making it
uneconomical to carry the drain below or above the canal.
3. When both canal and drain can safely flow together for some distance without mutual
interference.
4. When flood levels are not very high, and mixing of waters does not cause harm to canal
operation.
5. When the terrain does not allow large structures like aqueducts, super passages, or
siphons.
Component Parts of a Level Crossing
A level crossing consists of the following structural and hydraulic components:
(a) Canal Head Regulator
 Located on the canal side, upstream of the intersection.
 Controls the entry of canal water into the combined channel.
 Prevents drain water from entering the canal during high floods.
 Usually consists of masonry piers, gates, floor, and energy dissipation arrangements.
(b) Drainage Regulator
 Provided on the drain side, just before the junction.
 Controls the flow of drain water into the combined channel.
 Can be closed during canal maintenance or low flow conditions.
 Helps in regulating sediment entry and flood discharge.
(c) Divide Wall
 A masonry wall built between the canal and the drain at the junction point.
 Prevents eddies and cross-currents when both flows meet.
 Guides the flow smoothly into the combined channel.
 Helps in controlling mixing and reduces silt deposition near regulators.
(d) Escape or Scouring Sluice
 Provided downstream of the crossing.
 Allows excess or silt-laden water to be discharged safely back into the drain.
 Protects the canal from silting and flooding during high discharges.
(e) Protection Works
 Include pitching of slopes, stone aprons, cutoffs, and wing walls.
 Prevent erosion and scour near the junction and downstream area.
 Guide banks may be provided to stabilize the flow and prevent outflanking.
(f) Cross Regulators (if required)
 Sometimes provided on the downstream side of the canal to control the depth and discharge in the canal branch
after the crossing.
Design Considerations
Designing a level crossing involves hydraulic, structural, and operational considerations to
ensure smooth functioning and safety.
(a) Hydraulic Design
1. Relative Levels:
The bed levels of the canal and drain should be almost the same.
Difference in bed levels ≤ 0.3 m is considered acceptable.
2. Velocity and Flow Regulation:
The combined flow velocity in the common channel must be limited to non-scouring
values (generally below 1.5–2.0 m/s for earthen sections).
1. Combined Flow Section:
The combined cross-section is designed using continuity and Manning’s equation:
Q = A×V =AR2/3 S1/2
Where Q= discharge, A = flow area, R = hydraulic radius, S = bed slope, n= Manning’s
roughness coefficient.
2. Energy Dissipation:
Stilling basins, drop walls, or roughened aprons may be provided downstream of
regulators to dissipate energy.
3. Regulator Design:
Gates are designed for the maximum head difference likely to occur between canal and
drain.
The size of openings is governed by flow control requirements.
Structural Design
 Foundations should be safe against uplift and piping.
 Cutoffs and impervious floors are designed using Bligh’s or Khosla’s theory.
 Masonry or reinforced concrete is used for durability and stability.
 Adequate freeboard and side protection are provided.
(c) Alignment and Layout
 The canal and drain should preferably intersect at right angles.
 The approach and departure reach should be straight for at least 3 to 5 times the bed width
to ensure uniform flow.
 Divide wall should extend beyond the regulators into the combined channel for smooth flow
transition.
Working of a Level Crossing
1. During normal flow conditions, both canal and drain carry their respective discharges through
the combined channel without much interference.
2. During floods, the drain regulator is opened to allow free passage of floodwater, while the
canal head regulator may be partially or fully closed to prevent damage.
3. Escape or scouring sluice operates to remove silt and excess flow from the canal side.
4. After flood recession, the regulators are readjusted for normal flow operation.
Advantages
1. Economical: Cheapest type of cross-drainage structure since no major superstructure is
required.
2. Simpler Construction: Easier to construct compared to aqueducts or siphons.
3. Less Head Loss: Minimal change in water levels and energy losses.
4. No Need for Deep Excavation or High Embankment.
5. Easy Operation with regulators for both flows.
Disadvantages / Limitations
1. Mixing of Flows: Canal and drain water mix, which may cause pollution or affect irrigation
water quality.
2. Silting Problems: Drain water often carries silt which may deposit in the canal.
3. Flood Risk: During heavy drainage discharge, floodwaters may enter the canal, causing
damage to banks and structures.
4. Maintenance Issues: Frequent desilting and inspection are required.
5. Limited Applicability: Suitable only when the bed levels are almost identical and discharges
are manageable.
6. Operational Complexity: Requires careful regulation during varying discharge conditions.
Difference between Level Crossing and Other Cross Drainage Works

Type Relative Bed Level Flow Arrangement Example

Canal bed above drain Canal flows over the Canal over natural
Aqueduct
bed drain stream
Canal bed below drain Drain flows over the Small canal under
Superpassage
bed canal stream

Canal below drain and Canal under drain Canal crossing below
Siphon Aqueduct
flows under pressure (pressurized) a stream

Both flows under

Siphon Canal below drain Narrow crossing
pressure
Canal–drain
Canal and drain at Both flow together
Level Crossing intersection with
same level temporarily
regulators