DESCRIPTIVE
METHODS
OBSERVATIONS
OBSERVATIONAL
RESEARCH
Observational research is a qualitative research method where the
target respondent/subject is observed and analyzed in their
natural/real-world setting.
The term observational research is used to refer to several
different types of non-experimental studies in which behavior is
systematically observed and recorded.
GOALS
The goal is to obtain a snapshot of specific characteristics of an
individual, group, or setting.\
describe a variable or set of variables.
observational research is non-experimental because nothing is
manipulated or controlled, and as such we cannot arrive at causal
conclusions using this approach.
Observation
Naturalistic observation \ observation without intervention
Observation with intervention : Participant/structured & field
observation /Recording behavior
Analysis of observational data Advantages, problems, and
methodological issues
Unobtrusive measures of behavior are measures that don’t require
the researcher to intrude in the research context.
Direct and participant observation require that the researcher be
physically present. This can lead the respondents to alter their
behavior in order to look good in the eyes of the researcher.
Archival data
b. Qualitative and interviewing methods
a. Case study
b. Focus group
c. Content analysis
d. Ethnography
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
Naturalistic observation is an observational method that
involves observing people’s behavior in the environment in which
it typically occurs. (Not in laboratory) – field research
Observation without intervention (unstructured)
Observation with intervention (structured)
Complete observer
Observer as participant
Participant as observer
Ethically, this method is considered to be acceptable if the
participants remain anonymous and the behavior occurs in a
public setting where people would not normally have an
expectation of privacy.
OBSERVATIONS IN
UNIVERSITY
Risk taking behavior
Buying behavior of students
Struggling for quiz
Conformity
Abiding or not abiding to rules
Complaining behaviors
ANALYSIS OF
OBSERVATIONAL DATA
LEVELS OF OBSERVATION
Behavior and talk
Questions about behavior
Gestures
Actions
Movement
Expressions
Separate the two
Combine analysis
Paralinguistic aspect
OBSERVATION AND
THEORETICAL LENSES
What we choose to look for
What to attend
What to ignore
Meaning/interpretation
CODING SCHEMES
What to observe and what meaning to give
Robson (2002) – guidelines for coding schemes
Non verbal behaviors
Spatial Behaviors
Extra-linguistic
Linguistic Behaviors
PROBLEMS
Objectivity
Focus
Explicit
Non-context dependent
Exhaustive
INTERPRETATIVE ORIENTATION
TO OBSERVATION
Underlying meaning to actions of the participants
PARTICIPANTS
OBSERVATION RESEARCH
Complete participant
Participant as observer
Robson (2002) helpfully suggests that the process of conducting
participant observation can be seen as involving an orientation to
gathering data which involves a form of analytic induction
This can be seen to consist of a number of steps:
Putting forward a rough definition of the phenomenon of
interest. This is supported in turn by developing an initial
hypothetical explanation of the phenomenon.
Studying a situation in the light of the hypothesis, to
determine whether or not the hypothesis fits.
Checking whether the hypothesis fits the evidence. If it does
not then either the hypothesis must be reformulated, or the
phenomenon to be explained must be redefined so that the
phenomenon is excluded.
This is repeated with a second situation. Confidence in your
hypothesis increases with the number of situations fitting the
evidence. Each negative one requires either a redefinition or
reformulation.
This ensures an active and recursive loop between formulation of
the phenomenon being observed and the process of gathering
data
COLLECTING DATA
Investigative journalism
Selective attention
Selective memory and forgetting
Selective encoding