Lecture 2,3 & 4

Performance characteristics- Statics

calibration, accuracy and Precision
& Static Performance characteristic, error,
sensitivity, resolution, threshold, linearity and
hysteresis
Dynamic characteristics
Instrument Performance Characteristics
Terms and Definitions:
Calibration: A series of performance tests between a new instrument and a
high-quality
instrument used to determine
performance and uncertainty characteristics
These tests can be conducted in a
controlled laboratory
Laboratory setting or in the field
Calibration Field Calibration
through a series of inter-comparisons (or
“buddy checks).

Atmospheric Instrumentation M. D. Eastin

Terms and Definitions:
Systematic Error: A consistent / repeated offset in a measurement as a result of a fixed
or regular
discrepancy in the instrument response
Also called a “bias” –
can be accounted for or removed

Random Error: Variations in measurement due to statistical fluctuations in the

quantity
sensed, the
internal operation of the instrument, or some combination
of the two –
cannot be removed

Atmospheric Instrumentation M. D. Eastin

• Instrument performance is described by
quantitative qualities which are described
as characteristics.
• The two characteristics are:
1) Static characteristics
2) Dynamic characteristics
 Static characteristics
• The static characteristics pertain to a
system where quantities to be measured
are constant or vary slowly with time
E.g. the temperature of furnace
Static characteristics
the performance criteria for the measurement
of quantities that remain constant, or vary only
quite slowly.

Dynamic characteristics
the relationship between the system input and
output when the measured quantity (measurand)
is varying rapidly.
• In practice, the characteristics of the one group may well
influence the characteristics of the other. In order to access
overall instrument performance, however, the two groups of
characteristics are normally studied separately and then a
semi-quantitative superposition is carried out.
 Static characteristics
Accuracy and Precision
Repeatability & Reproducibility
Tolerance
Range & span
Linearity
Sensitivity
Threshold
Resolution
Drift
Hysteresis
1. Accuracy

• This is the closeness with which the measuring

instrument can measure the ‘true value’ of the
measurand under stated conditions of use, i.e. its
ability to ‘tell the truth’.

• The accuracy of an instrument is quantified by the

difference of its readings and the one given by the
ultimate or primary standard.
 Accuracy depends on inherent limitations of
instrument and shortcomings in measurement
process.
Unit of accuracy:
1. Percentage of true value (% of T.V.)
= (Measured value – True value)
*100
True value
2. Percentage of Full Scale Deflection (% of
fsd) = (Measured value – True value)
*100
Maximum Scale value
2. Precision
• Precision is defined as the ability of instrument to
reproduce a certain set of readings within given
accuracy.
• Precision describes an instrument’s degree of random
variations in its output when measuring a constant
quantity.
• Precision depends upon repeatability.
 Precision is often confused with accuracy. High
precision does not imply anything about measurement
accuracy.
Accuracy Precision
• Precision represents degree
• Accuracy represents
of repeatability of several
degree of correctness of
independent measurements
the measured value w.r.t.
of desired input at the same
true value.
reference conditions

• Accuracy of • Precision of instruments

instrument depends on depends on factors that cause
systematic errors. random or accidental errors.
Measuring a fixed target position
Repeatability describes the closeness of output
readings when the same input is applied repetitively over
a short period of time, with the same measurement
conditions, same instrument and observer, same location
and same conditions of use maintained throughout.
Reproducibility describes the closeness of output
readings for the same input when there are changes in
the method of measurement, observer, measuring
instrument, location, conditions of use and time of
measurement.
4. Resolution (Discrimination)
• It is the minimum change or smallest increment in
the measured value that can be detected with
certainty by the instrument.
• It can be least count of instrument.
 5. Dead Space : Threshold
Dead space/ Threshold is defined as the
range of different input values over which
there is no change in output value.

Eddy current speedometers used in automobiles

typically have a threshold of about 15 km/h.
 Tolerance
• Tolerance is a term that is closely related to
accuracy and defines the maximum error that is
to be expected in some value.
• Example
Electric circuit components such as resistors have
tolerances of perhaps 5%. One resistor chosen at
random from a batch having a nominal value
1000W and tolerance 5% might have an actual
value anywhere between 950W and 1050 W. 50±0.1 mm

Maximum allowable

diameter : 50.01 mm

Minimum allowable

diameter: 49.9 mm

Tolerance: 0.1 mm
 Range and Span
• The range of an instrument defines
the minimum and maximum values
of a quantity that the instrument is
designed to measure.
Range

-20 oC to 60 oC

• Span is the difference between maximum

value and the minimum value that the
instrument is designed to measure
Full scale reading (f.s.) = 60 -

-20 = 80 oC

• Example:
• 0-20 V Range
• -- Span is 20
• 25c – 100 c
• Range – Span is 75c
 8. Linearity
This is the closeness to a straight
line of the relationship between
the true process variable and the
measurement.
i.e. deviation of transducer output
curve from a specified straight line.
1. Independent of Input
2. Proportional to Input
3. Combined independent
& proportional to
Input.
Linearity is usually reported as non-linearity, which is the maximum
of the deviation between the calibration curve and a straight line
positioned so that the maximum deviation is minimized.
 9. Sensitivity of measurement
The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change
in instrument output that occurs when the quantity being
measured changes by a given amount. Thus, sensitivity
is the ratio:

Static Sensitivity K = Change of Output Signal qo

Change in Input Signal qi

10. Reliability

Reliability is the probability that a device will adequately

perform (as specified) for a period of time under specified
operating conditions. Some sensors are required for safety
or product quality, and therefore, they should be very
reliable.
11. Drift
• It is defined as the variation of output for a given input caused
due to change in sensitivity of the instrument due to certain
interfering inputs like temperature changes, component
instabilities, etc.

• Prime sources occur as chemical structural changes and

changing mechanical stresses.

• Drift is a complex phenomenon for which the observed effects are

that the sensitivity and offset values vary.

• It also can alter the accuracy of the instrument differently at the

various amplitudes of the signal present.
Effects of disturbance: (a) zero drift; (b) sensitivity drift;
(c) zero drift plus sensitivity drift.
12. Hysteresis
• Careful observation of the output/input relationship of a block will
sometimes reveal different results as the signals vary in direction
of the movement.
• Mechanical systems will often show a small difference in length
as the direction of the applied force is reversed.
• The same effect arises as a magnetic field is reversed in a magnetic
material.
• This characteristic is called hysteresis.
• Hysteresis is defined as the magnitude of error caused in the
output for a given value of input, when this value is approached
from opposite directions ; i.e. from ascending order & then
descending order.
• Causes are backlash, elastic deformations, magnetic
characteristics, frictional effects (mainly).
• Hysteresis can be eliminated by taking readings in both direction
and then taking its arithmetic mean.
Instrument characteristic with hysteresis.
13. Backlash
• It is defined as the maximum distance or angle
through which any part of mechanical system may be
moved in one direction without causing motion of
next part.
• Can be minimized if components are made to very
close tolerances.
Dynamic Characteristics of
· Describe behaviors between the time an input quantity changes its
Instruments
value and the time when the instrument output attains a steady
value
· Are useful when the input signal is rapidly varying
· Used to study performance under transient conditions

· In general, both static and dynamic characteristics are important to

characterize a given instrument

· Ordinary linear differential equation with constant coefficients is the

most widely used mathematical model to study dynamic response in
the form

· Usually linear, time-invariant (LTI) system assumed

·In an LTI system, input and output, for time t > 0, are related as:

d n qo d n  1qo dqo
an n
 a n 1 n 1
 ...  a1  ao qo
dt dt dt
d m qi d m  1qi dq
bm m  bm  1 m  1  ...  b1 i  bo qi
dt dt dt
(2.1)
· where qi is the measured (input) quantity, q0 is the output reading and a0 . . .
an, b0 . . . bm are constants

·Using the method of Laplace-transform, equation (2.1) is

(a n S n  an  1 S n  1  ...  a1 S  ao )Qo ( S ) (bm S m  bm  1 S m  1  ...  b1 S  bo )Qi ( S )

Qo ( S ) bm S m  bm  1 S m  1  ...  b1 S  bo
H ( S )  (2.2)
Qi ( S ) an S n  an  1 S n  1  ...  a1 S  ao
· Or
If we limit consideration to step changes in the measured quantity only, then
Equation (2.1) reduces to:
d n qo d n  1 qo dqo (2.3)
an n
 a n 1 n 1
 ...  a1  ao qo bo qi
dt dt dt

So that
bo
H (S ) 
an S n  an  1 S n  1  ...  a1 S  ao

Based on the order of Equation (2.3), equipments are classified as zero-, first-, and
second-order instruments
Zero-order Instrument
·When all the coefficients a1 . . . an other than a0 and bo are assumed to be zero,
Equation (2.3) then degenerates into
(2.4)
a0 qo b0 qi
· Any instrument that closely obeys Equation (2.4) is defined to be a zero-order
instrument

·The two constants can be combined to give

bo
qo  qi Kqi (2.5)
ao

·where K=bo/ao is static sensitivity

·From Equation (2.4), no matter how qi might vary with time, the output follows it
perfectly with no distortion or time lag
· Zero-order instrument represents ideal or perfect dynamic performance
Zero-order Instrument …
Example: Displacement measuring potentiometer
Given linear distribution of resistance along length L, the
output voltage eo can be written as
xi
eo  Eb Kqi
L
Measurement error em = Kqi - eo = o (ideal)
First-order Instrument
·If all the coefficients a . . . a except for a , a , and b are assumed zero in
2 n 0 1 0
equation (2.3) then:
(2.6)
dq
a1 o  ao qo  bo qi
dt

·Using the Laplace transform and rearranging, we get

(2.7)
b0 / a0
Qo  Qi
1  (a1 / a0 ) S

·Defining K = b0/a0 as the static sensitivity and =a1/a0 as the time constant of the
system, equation (2.7) becomes (2.8)

K
Qo  Qi
1  S
First-order Instrument …
Examples of first-order instruments
Temperature measurement system
Amplifiers
Electromechanical and electronic meters
Graphical recorders
CRO (RC and RL network of CRO)

The dynamic behavior can be studied with the response of the system
due to standard test inputs
Example: Impulse, step, ramp, sinusoidal inputs
First-order Instrument
If equation (2.8) is solved analytically, the output q0 in response to a
step change in qi at time t is shown in the figure below

Time constant  is the time taken for the output quantity q0 to

reach 63% of its final value
Performance Parameters
Dynamic characteristics that are useful in characterizing the speed of response of
any instrument include

Rise Time: Time required for a response to reach 90% of the step input (final
value)

Settling time: Time to reach and stay within a stated  tolerance value around its
final value

Knowing fast response requires a small value of 

Need to know which parameters to vary to reduced settling time
Dynamic characteristics of Measurement
Measurement Systems especially in industrial, aerospace and
System
Biological applications are subject to inputs which are not static but
dynamic in nature i.e. the inputs vary with time and also the output
vary with time.
The Dynamic characteristics of any measurement system described by
1. Speed of Response
2. Measuring Lag
3. Fidelity
4. Dynamic Error
Terms used for dynamic characteristics
1. Response time: Time elapsed between an input is applied and the time
in which the system gives an output corresponding to some specified
percentage, e.g. 95%, of its final value

2. Rise time: Time taken for the

output to rise to some specified
percentage of the steady-state
output. Often the rise time refers to
the time taken for the output to rise
from 10% of the steady-state value
to 90 of the steady-state value.
3. Settling time: This is the time taken
for the output to settle to within
some percentage, e.g. 2%, of the
steady-state value
4. Measuring Lag:-An instrument does not immediately react a
change in output
Measuring Lag is defined as the delay in the response of an
instrument to a change in a Measuring quantity.
Two types of Measuring Lag
1. Retardation type:-In this case the response of the instrument
begins immediately after a change in the measured has
occurred.
2. Time Delay type:-In this case the response of the system
begins after a “Dead Time” that means after the application
of the input.
5. Fidelity of a measurement system is defined as the ability of the
system to reproduce the output in the same variation of the input.
In Fidelity measurement system , there is no time lag
or Phase shift between the input and output
6. Dynamic Error is the difference between the measured
value of the instrument changing with time and the value
indicated by the instrument if no static error is assumed.

7. Standard signals of Instrumentation system

Dynamic behavior of measurement systems can be
studied with the help of certain standard signals.
These standard signals are Step Input, Ramp Input
and Sinusoidal input
 Different Types of Input
The static characteristics refer to the results when a constant input is applied. What
happens if the input is not constant but is changing? How does the instrument
respond? That depends on the dynamic characteristics.
For example, a standard thermometer is suitable for measuring the temperature in this
room. This changes slowly during the day and night, without sudden changes.
Compare this to the measurement of cylinder temperature in a combustion engine.
This change extremely suddenly and by a large amount. The output from the standard
thermometer to this type of input would be useless.
Different instruments handle changing inputs in different ways.
To compare instruments fairly, we should apply the same type of input to each and
measure the result. An easily repeatable changing input is required.
There are three standard types of changing inputs
Step Input Ramp Input Sinusoidal Input
 Step Input
This is a an abrupt change from one steady input value to another. The response of the
system to it is called the transient response and is a measure of how well the system
can respond to sudden changes.
Think of the situation where a thermometer is suddenly moved from a beaker of ice and
water into a bath of boiling water.
Is this a step change in the input?
Describe what happens to the reading on the thermometer.
Does it take a long time to get to the new value?

Step Input
Input

Temp

T
i
m
 Ramp Input
The ramp input varies linearly with time and the ramp response of the
system is observed to give the steady state error between the output and the
input.
For example a thermometer is placed in a bath of water and ice and a constant
heat is applied to the bath. The thermometer reading is recorded as the bath
temperature is ramped from 0 to 100degC.

Ramp Input

Input

Time
 Sine Wave Input
The sine wave input is used to provide the frequency response of the system. It shows
how the system responds to inputs of cyclic nature at different frequencies.
How could this be implemented for the thermometer?
Is this easy or difficult?
What type of system is this most suited to?
The laboratory experiment with the LVDT uses a sine
wave input.

Sine Wave Input

Input

Time