ADVANCED QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD
JIREGNA ASSEFA (PHD)
0967344743
MEANING OF RESEARCH
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. One can also define research as a
scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art
of scientific investigation.
It is a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge. Redman and Mory define research as a systematized effort to gain new knowledge. Some
people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown. It is actually a
voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown
confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller
understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method,
which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research.
CONT…
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a
technical sense. According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining
and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions;
collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching
conclusions; and at last, carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
CONT…
• It is also defined as the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the
purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether
that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.
Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of
knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the
help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search
for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding
solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning
generalization and the formulation of a theory is also research.
CONT…
As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating
the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts
and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the
concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application
of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is
hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its
own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of
following broad groupings:
CONT…
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with
this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known
as hypothesis-testing research studies).
MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance.
The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over
practical problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability
CONT…
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research
studies. Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions,
curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and
awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform
research operations.
What motivates you to learn ? What motivates you to carryout researches?
RESEARCH APPROACHES
The above description of the types of research brings to light the fact that
there are two basic approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach and
the qualitative approach. The former involves the generation of data in
quantitative form which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis
in a formal and rigid fashion. This approach can be further sub-classified
into inferential, experimental and simulation approaches to research. The
purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data base from
which to infer characteristics or relationships of population.
CONT.…
• This usually means survey research where a sample of population is
studied (questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is
then inferred that the population has the same characteristics.
Experimental approach is characterized by much greater control over the
research environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to
observe their effect on other variables. Simulation approach involves the
construction of an artificial environment within which relevant
information and data can be generated.
CONT.…
This permits an observation of the dynamic behavior of a system (or its sub-
system) under controlled conditions. The term ‘simulation’ in the context of
business and social sciences applications refers to “the operation of a
numerical model that represents the structure of a dynamic process. Given
the values of initial conditions, parameters and exogenous variables, a
simulation is run to represent the behavior of the process over time.”
Simulation approach can also be useful in building models for understanding
future conditions.
• Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment
of attitudes, opinions and behavior. Research in such a situation is a
function of researcher’s insights and impressions. Such an approach to
research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form
which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally, the
techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth
interviews are used.
What Is Qualitative Research?
We begin with a brief history of qualitative research, its traditions and
philosophical underpinnings. This is not intended as a comprehensive and
detailed account, but rather as edited highlights of an evolutionary process.
There are several reasons why it is helpful to understand something of the
background of qualitative research before going on to discuss the specifics
of how to do it.
• Second, it has been argued that it is important to be aware of the
philosophical debates and the methodological developments arising from
them in order to secure the quality of the research produced (and therefore
the degree to which its findings are accepted, and by whom). Although this
view is widely held by researchers from a range of different backgrounds,
there is some divergence over how quality can and should be ensured in
qualitative research. Some writers argue that different methodological
approaches are underpinned by particular philosophical assumptions and
that researchers should maintain consistency between the philosophical
starting point and the methods they adopt. Indeed, maintaining consistency
is seen as one way of producing more 'valid' findings (Morse et al., 2001).
By contrast, others believe that the methods associated with a range of
philosophical positions each have something to offer. Thus, they argue that
better quality work is produced if the full range of research tools and quality
assurances available are considered (Seale, 1999). Despite these different
perspectives, there is general agreement that an understanding of this
background will encourage and contribute to better research practice.
As the preceding discussion indicates, it is important to appreciate that there
is no one right and accepted way of doing qualitative research and the
methods we use reflect a particular mix of philosophy, research objectives,
participants, funders and audiences relevant to applied policy research. It is
therefore important that readers understand where and how we situate our
approach within the broader field of qualitative research in order to assess
the value and appropriateness of the research practices we describe for their
own purposes.
Defining qualitative research Most texts on qualitative research begin with
some attempt to define what is meant by this term, either theoretically or
practically, or both. We will follow in this time-honored tradition because it is
important to understand the diversity inherent in this term and also because it is
impossible to discuss qualitative research practice without defining what is
meant by it. However, providing a precise definition of qualitative research is
no mean feat. This reflects the fact that the term is used as an overarching
category, covering a wide range of approaches and methods found within
different research disciplines.
Despite this diversity and the sometimes-conflicting nature of underlying assumptions about its
inherent qualities, a number of writers have attempted to capture the essence of qualitative
research by offering working definitions or by identifying a set of key characteristics.
Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It consists of a
set of interpretive, material practices that makes the world visible. These practices ... turn the
world into a series of representations including fieldnotes, interviews, conversations,
photographs, recordings and memos to the self. At this level, qualitative research involves an
interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. This means that qualitative researchers study
things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms
of the meanings people bring to them.
In particular, there is fairly wide consensus that qualitative research is a
naturalistic, interpretative approach concerned with understanding the
meanings which people attach to phenomena (actions, decisions, beliefs,
values etc.) within their social worlds:
The way in which people being studied understand and interpret their
social reality is one of the central motifs of qualitative research.
(Bryman, 1988: 8)
Some researchers have also focused on key aspects of methodology as defining
characteristics of qualitative research. These key aspects include: the overall research
perspective and the importance of the participants' frames of reference; the flexible nature
of research design; the volume and richness of qualitative data; the distinctive approaches
to analysis and interpretation; and the kind of outputs that derive from qualitative research.
Certain data collection methods have also been identified with qualitative research such as:
observational methods, in-depth interviewing, group discussions, narratives, and the
analysis of documentary evidence. However, it is important to note that practitioners of
qualitative research vary considerably in the extent to which they rely on particular
methods of data collection.
In order to avoid becoming overly focused on the variations that make
simple definitions of qualitative research difficult to attain, it is perhaps
helpful to highlight key elements which are commonly agreed to give
qualitative research its distinctive character. These include: • aims which are
directed at providing an in-depth and interpreted understanding of the social
world of research participants by learning about their social and material
circumstances, their experiences, perspectives and histories.
In order to avoid becoming overly focused on the variations that make
simple definitions of qualitative research difficult to attain, it is perhaps
helpful to highlight key elements which are commonly agreed to give
qualitative research its distinctive character. These include: • aims which are
directed at providing an in-depth and interpreted understanding of the social
world of research participants by learning about their social and material
circumstances, their experiences, perspectives and histories.
METHODOLOGICAL STANCES ASSOCIATED WITH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Perspective of the researcher and the researched • Taking the 'emic'
perspective, i.e. the perspective of the people being studied by penetrating
their frames of meaning • Viewing social life in terms of processes rather
than in static terms • Providing a holistic perspective within explained
contexts • Sustaining empathic neutrality whereby the researcher uses
personal insight while taking a non-judgmental stance.
Nature of research design
Adopting a flexible research strategy • Conducting naturalistic inquiry in real-world rather
than experimental or manipulated settings (though methods vary in the extent to which they
capture naturally occurring or generated data.
Nature of data generation • Using methods of data generation which are flexible and
sensitive to the social context in which the data are produced • Using methods which
usually involve close contact between the researcher and the people being studied, where
the researcher is the primary instrument.
Nature of the research methods used
• Main qualitative methods include: observation, in-depth individual interviews, focus groups,
biographical methods such as life histories and narratives, and analysis of documents and texts.
Nature of analysis/interpretation
•Based on methods of analysis and explanation building which reflect the complexity, detail and
context of the data • Identifying emergent categories and theories from the data rather than
imposing a priori categories and ideas • Respecting the uniqueness of each case as well as
conducting cross-case analysis • Developing explanations at the level of meaning rather than
cause
Nature of outputs
• Producing detailed descriptions and 'rounded understandings' which are based on, or offer
an interpretation of, the perspectives of the participants in the social setting • Mapping
meanings, processes and contexts • Answering 'what is', 'how' and 'why' questions •
Consideration of the influence of the researcher's perspectives.
Qualitative methods are used to address research questions that require explanation or
understanding of social phenomena and their contexts. They are particularly well suited to
exploring issues that hold some complexity and to studying processes that occur over time.
Key philosophical and methodological issues in qualitative research
Ontology
As this brief history of qualitative research demonstrates, deciding how to study the social
world has always raised a number of key philosophical debates. Some of these issues relate
to 'ontology' and are concerned with beliefs about what there is to know about the world.
Within social research, key ontological questions concern: whether or not social reality
exists independently of human conceptions and interpretations; whether there is a common,
shared, social reality or just multiple context-specific realities; and whether or not social
behavior is governed by 'laws' that can be seen as immutable or generalizable.
One of the key ontological debates surrounds whether there is a captive social reality and
how it should be constructed. In broad terms, there are three distinct positions, realism,
materialism and idealism. Realism claims that there is an external reality which exists
independently of people's beliefs or understanding about it. In other words, there is a
distinction between the way the world is and the meaning and interpretation of that world
held by individuals. Materialism also claims that s there is a real world but that only
material features, such as economic relations, or physical features of that world hold reality.
Values, beliefs or experiences are 'epiphenomena' - that is features that arise from, but do
not shape, the material world. Idealism, on the other hand, asserts that reality is only
knowable through the human mind and through socially constructed meanings.
An underlying ontological issue has concerned whether the social and
natural worlds exist in similar ways or whether the social world is very
different because it is open to subjective interpretation. Some early
commentators believed that the social world was similar to the physical
world and was governed by universal, causal laws. Most contemporary
qualitative researchers maintain that the social world is regulated by
normative expectations and shared understandings and hence the laws that
govern it are not immutable.
Epistemology
'Epistemology' is concerned with ways of knowing and learning about the social world and
focuses on questions such as: how can we know about reality and what is the basis of our
knowledge? There are three main issues around which there is debate in social research.
The first concerns the relationship between the researcher and the researched. In the natural
science model, phenomena are seen as independent of and unaffected by the behavior of the
researcher, consequently the researcher can be objective in his or her approach and the
investigation can be viewed as value free. While some qualitative researchers subscribe to this
model, others believe that, in the social world, people are affected by the process of being
studied and that the relationship between the researcher and social phenomena is interactive.
In this case, the researcher cannot be objective and cannot produce an
objective or 'privileged' account. Findings are either mediated through the
researcher ('value-mediated'), or they can be negotiated and agreed between
the researcher and research participants. Between these two positions, some
researchers propose 'empathic neutrality', a position that recognizes that
research cannot be value free but which advocates that researchers should
make their assumptions transparent.
• A second point at issue surrounds theories about 'truth'. This links back to
views about similarities or differences between the natural and social
worlds. In the natural sciences, the dominant theory of truth is one of
correspondence - that is, there is a match between observations or readings
of the natural world and an independent reality. An alternative view,
known as the inter subjective or coherence theory of truth, and proposed as
more appropriate for the study of the social world, suggests that this
'independent' reality can only be gauged in a consensual rather than an
absolute way.
If several reports confirm a statement, then it can be considered true as a representation of a socially
constructed reality. Finally, there are those who argue for a pragmatic theory or truth, which rests on
the premise that an interpretation is true if it leads to, or provides assistance to take, actions that
produce the desired or predicted results.
A final area of debate concerns the way in which knowledge is acquired. The main options are
through induction by looking for patterns and association derived from observations of the world;
or through deduction whereby propositions or hypotheses are reached theoretically, through a
logically derived process. In other words, inductive processes involve using evidence as the genesis
of a conclusion; deductive processes use evidence in support of a conclusion. Although qualitative
research is often seen as an inductive approach, it is not a singularly defining characteristic of
qualitative research. Inductive reasoning is used in other forms of enquiry and the processes of
sampling and generalization from qualitative research involve both induction and deduction.