Chapter 6: Research methods in health

promotion

By : Muluken Mussie (Bsc, MPH)

School of Public health
CHSM
WSU

Address: mulukenmussie@[Link]

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 Session Objectives

At the end of this session students are expected to:-

 Define qualitative research

Compare and contrast qualitative & quantitative

research
Describe the different qualitative research designs,
sampling ,data collection methods and analysis
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 Contents

 Qualitative research Definition & concepts

 Qualitative Vs Quantitative research

 Strength & weakness

 Qualitative designs and Sampling methods

 Qualitative data Collection methods

 Qualitative Data analysis & Interpretation

 Qualitative Report writing

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What is research?

“Research is what I am doing

when I don`t know what I am
doing!”
4
 Qualitative research

 Qualitative/Research is an organized and

systematic process of collecting and analyzing
information (data) in order to finding
answers to questions or increase our
understanding of the phenomenon about which we
are concerned or interested.”

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 Qualitative research…..
• Systematic:
 set of procedures and steps which researcher will follow.
 ordered and public and following rules agreed

• Organized
 Planned procedure, not a spontaneous
 Focused and limited to a specific scope

• Questions
 central to research.
 If there is no question, then the answer is of no use.
 Without a question, research has no focus, drive, or
purpose.

• Finding answers
 End of all researches
 Research is successful when we find answers
 Sometimes the answer is no, but it is still an answer

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 Qualitative research: what can be studied?

Qualitative research is about …

 Discovering

 Exploring and understandings

 people’s experience, inner and

silent/hidden motive and perspectives

 Going for deeper understanding,

penetration

 Person centered and holistic

understandings within contexts-not
possible to detach context from people’s
experience
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 Qualitative research….
Qualitative research helps to
study;
 Cultural beliefs, norms

 Develop hypotheses

 Understand problems not

well defined

 Deeply rooted and complex

problems

 Understand sensitive issues

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 Qualitative research questions

In qualitative research framework research question

address;

WHY? How?

Under what
What?
circumstance?

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Philosophical and methodological issues in research

Research paradigm
• All research is based on some underlying philosophical assumptions
about what constitute valid research.

• This underlying philosophical assumption is called research

paradigm.

• Paradigm refers to established research culture, set of beliefs,

patterns, framework, values and assumptions that a community of
researcher has in common regarding the nature and conduct of
research.

• Philosophical assumption guides the methods to be adopted,

consistency between philosophy and methods employed
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Research process has three major philosophical dimensions

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Ontological basis of Qualitative;
• Social world is not similar to the physical
world and not governed by universal, causal
laws.
• social world is regulated by normative
expectations and shared understandings

• There are multiple realities, no fixed reality,

product of time and space

• A researcher who is trying to produce a single

reality “ dictator”

• Reality can be explored and constructed

through human interactions and meaningful
actions

• Many social realities exist due to varying

human experiences including people
knowledge,
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experience
 Qualitative Vs Quantitative
 Why? • How many? How much? How
 How? often?
 Understanding • Quantification/statistical
behavior/insight analysis
 Non-numeric • Numeric
 Subjective • Objective
 Inductive • Deductive
 Non- generalizable • Generalizable
 Small sample • Large sample
 Generate hypothesis • Test hypothesis

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Strengths & weaknesses of qualitative
research
Strengths
Less expensive

 flexible

 validity:- individuals are interviewed in sufficient detail for

the results to be taken as true, correct, complete, and
believable reports their views and experiences

However, validity in QR largely hinges on the skill &

competence of the researcher conducting the investigation
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 weaknesses

Lacks generalizability

Less reliability (personal )

Ethical issues

Great demand for QR skills (observational, interviewing,

interpretive, writing, & presentation skills)

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Common qualitative research designs

1. Phenomenology
2. Grounded theory
3. Case study
4. Ethnography
5. Narrative study
6. Discourse analysis
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Sampling and sample size in QR
Sample size

• No hard and fast rules in QR

• Sample size depends on:

o Purpose of the research
o Specific research questions
o What will be useful, and what will have credibility
o Available time and resources

• Selection continues to the point of saturation and redundancy

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 Sampling techniques in QR
1. Convenient: accidental

or availability sampling.
oEasily accessible are selected.

oMostly appropriate in
preliminary assessments.
oWeak in reaching participants
with the subject matter.

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 2. Purposive or
judgmental
sampling:
Criteria based sampling
(may be more appropriate
saying for purposive
sampling).

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 Types of purposive
samplings:
[Link] case/deviant
sampling: unusual or special
cases.

[Link] sampling: The same

logic, but strongly represent
the phenomena of interest
rather than unusual cases.

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[Link] samples:

Have the same characteristics: This

allows for detailed investigation of
social processes in a specified context.

[Link] samples/
maximum variation sampling:

Vary widely from each other. The aim

is to identify central themes across the
varieties.
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 Sampling cont…..

[Link] cases: Cases which characterize positions that are

'normal' or 'average' are selected to provide detailed profiling.

[Link] purposive sampling: a hybrid approach, each

subgroup homogenous and subgroups can be compared.

[Link] case sampling: Cases are pivotal in understanding

offered by the research.

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[Link] sampling:
Chain referral sampling or
Respondent driven
sampling:
o Preferred in studies of deviance,
sensitive topics, or difficult to
reach/hidden populations.
oIdentify subjects with a certain
attribute and search others
through their social network. E.g.
if you want to find drug users
among university students.

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Quota sampling

Supplementary sampling

Theoretical sampling

Opportunistic sampling

Reading Assignment??????

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Qualitative Data collection

• Qualitative researchers begin with more general, open-

ended questions, moving towards greater precision as
detailed information emerges

• Inverted triangle

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Qualitative Data collection techniques

Major qualitative data collection techniques :

I. Observation

II. In-depth Interviews

III. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)

IV. Document review

V. Photography etc
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 I. Observation

 Systematic watching and recording of what people do and say

… in naturally occurring settings and careful recording of what
occurs.
 Capture the whole event as it occurs in its natural environment.
 Participant vs non- participant observation
 Direct vs In-direct observation
 Structured vs Unstructured
 Overt vs covert
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Why Observe and Record Behavior?
● What people do and what they say, they do are not
always the same
• (even if they are honest, self reports may lack precision, detail
or be unconsciously or consciously biased or partial)
● Systematic observation provides one with an enhanced
appreciation of those you study

○ It gets you out in the community and allows you to meet and
get to know many more people than you otherwise would

○ It may also allow you to see things that you would have
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never seen before
 II. In-depth interview

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 When to use???

• Reliable for highly personal, sensitive or confidential

topics (issues that cause embarrassment in a group).
• When peer pressure is expected to distort facts
• Valuable for searching busy and dispersed respondents
• Probing deeper into individual attitudes
• Lasts for 30-90 minutes with Minimum sample 10-30
• Interviewees can be either “key informants” or
“ordinary people”
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Key Informant Interviews

• Key informant – actor in a social group (community

leaders, etc)
• Insiders with special knowledge and skill
• Speak on behalf of others
• Links the researcher to the community
• Provides detailed data on specific areas
• Your trusted advisor

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 III. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)

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Focus Group Discussions……

 Individuals assembled by a researcher

 Discussion from experience

 Group interaction between the participants

 No right/wrong answer

 Record both words and non-verbal behaviors

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 Purpose of FGD

• Assess respondents’ attitudes, feelings, beliefs,

cultural norms, experiences and reactions

• Used either as a method in their own or as a

complement to other methods

• Used either at the beginning (exploratory) or at the

end (explanatory) of a large quantitative study
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 Group composition of FGD

• 6-12 people

• Homogeneous
• Diversity inhibits free
discussion
• Group composition
influence group
interaction

• 1 to 1½ hr
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Interview/Discussion Guide

• Discussion needs guiding and focusing

• The flow is from general to specific

• FGD guides: unstructured or semi-structured

• Questions: General open-ended (5-10 Qs)

• The guide is modifiable (not fixed)

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The Role of the FGD Moderator
• Moderator/recorder

• Should be experienced

• Ensures the discussion runs smoothly

• Ensures the discussion remains focused

• Maintains group dynamics

• Good verbal and interpersonal skill

• Non-judgmental (neither agree nor disagree)

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The Role of the Recorder

• Note-taking

• May use tape recorder (ensures that the whole interview

is captured, and provides complete data)

• Prepares detailed summaries at the end of each

discussion

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Advantages of FGD
• Inexpensive
• Flexible
• Quick result
• Probing possible
• Generate hypothesis
• Brainstorming and interaction
• Stimulating new ideas and concepts
• Participants provide checks and balances, minimizing false
or extreme views
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Limitations of FGD

• Data are not quantitative & May not be representative

• Not appropriate for discussing private or sensitive

issues

• Discussions may be dominated by few individuals

• Data analysis difficult

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 IV. Document Review

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 V. Photography

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Qualitative data analysis and presentation

• Begin with the first field activities and

• May lead to revisions or refinements in research questions

• Two levels:

[Link] = describing what was actually said

[Link] = concerned with what was meant, inferred
or implied

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Analysis Considerations

1. Words
2. Context (tone and inflection)
3. Internal consistency (opinion shifts during groups)
4. Frequency and intensity of comments (counting,
content analysis)
5. Trends/themes
6. Iteration (data collection and analysis is an iterative
process moving back and forth).

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The Procedures

1. Coding/indexing
2. Categorisation
3. Abstraction/Concept/idea
4. Comparison
5. Integration
6. Iteration
7. Refutation (subjecting inferences to scrutiny)
8. Interpretation (grasp of meaning - difficult to describe
procedurally)
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QD analysis

• Data could be: field notes, transcripts &other written

materials

• All items of data in one interview should be compared

with data collected from other interviewees

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 Stages in QDA
Whatever the approach is used, there are key stages in qualitative data analysis.

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Transcription

• Transcription is the process of converting an audio or

video recording in to textual or written representation.

• Very important step but time consuming

• Takes more than 3-4 hours to transcribe an hour’s

interview. (1 interview up to 20 pages)

• Transcript analysis/tape analysis

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Transcription……

• It is important to include non-verbal cues in the transcript as

they add meanings to the spoken words.

• It needs experienced personnel.

• To improve the quality of the transcript it is important to listen

the audio-video recording carefully repeatedly.

• Then transcribe them, again listen to the recording having the

transcript in front and improve it by modifying.
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Organizing data

• It is necessary to organise our data into easily

retrievable sections.

• Give number or code for each interview to break up

field notes into sections identified by date, or by
context.

• Backup (hard & soft copies)

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Familiarization

• The researcher needs

• Listening to tapes and watching video material,
Reading and re-reading the data,
• Making memos and summaries before the formal
analysis begins.

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Coding and categorization

• Coding is the process of deciding how to conceptually

divide up raw qualitative data.

• In the early stages of analysis most sections of the text, will

be marked and given different ‘codes’ depending on their
content

• As the analysis progresses these codes will be refined or

combined to form categories or themes of issues.
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Coding…

• The procedure of coding involves:

• Read through one of the transcripts and develop
codes from the data
• Do the same with all transcripts
• Noting similar ideas with the first transcript and
• Emerging ideas to develop new codes.
• Look through the data again, with the idea of forming
broader categories.

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Example of coding IDI with Respondent 1

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Categorization

• Is a major component of QDA by which investigators

attempt to group patterns observed in the data into
meaningful units or categories.

• Based on the similarities of meaning between the

individually coded bits as observed by the researcher.

• The results of this process may lead to the creation of

themes, constructs orResearch
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methods in health promotion 56
Example of Categorizing

Questions Categories Codes

Q 2. In your opinion, what do you think about the factors Fire age
that Predispose University studs to risky sexual
Biological Not rational
behaviors? Emotional

Alcohol
Substance use Ganja
Shisha
chat

Poor
Socio-economic Money
Business
Outsiders
Sex brokers

Peer influence
Peer pressure Fresh
Seniors influence

Female
Gender Related Coercion
Harassment
Frighten
Security

No RH services
Service related No entertainment
No HE
No condom

Q 3. How do you Perceived problems that the student HIV

might face as a result of risky sexual practice?
HIV/STIs STIs

Pregnancy
Pregnancy related Abortion

Poor performance
Academic Withdrawal
Dismissal

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Identifying themes

• A theme is generated when similar issues and ideas

expressed by participants within qualitative data are
brought together by the researcher into a single cluster.

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Identifying themes

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 Interpretations

• Data do not necessarily speak for themselves.

• Findings can be viewed from multiple perspectives.

• The process by which a researcher construes meaning

from research findings is referred to as interpretation.

• It involves helping the readers to make sense of the

findings produced in a research study.
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 Interpretations…..

• During interpretation we need to use our themes and

connections to explain our findings.

• This is attaching meaning and significance to the

analysis.

• A good place to start interpretation is to develop a list of

key points or important findings we discovered as a
result of categorizingResearch
12/06/2025 and sorting
methods our data.
in health promotion 62
Software packages for qualitative analysis

• Popular packages now in use by health services

researcher include:
 Open Code
 AtlasTi
 NUD*IST and
 NVivo

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Credibility Of Qualitative Data

Activities /techniques to achieve credibility/truth value

 Prolonged engagement

 Persistent observation

 Triangulation

 Peer debriefing

 Member checks: on the respondents

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Cont….
[Link] engagement
 Spending long periods in the field to build trust with
the study participants.
 Acquire cultural competence and become familiar
with the overall context.
2. Member check
 Taking back the results (short summary) to the
studied group through seminars or FGDs.
 Allows clarification of information.

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Cont….

3. Peer-debriefing
Presentation of preliminary findings to colleagues.
 Helps the researchers evaluate their role in the
research process
 Allows the researcher to receive input and comments.

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Cont….

[Link]
Combination of different kinds of data or data
collection methods in a study.
Common types of triangulation.
 Data triangulation: Different data sources used
(multiple respondents)
 Methodological triangulation: FGDs and depth
interview observation doc review
 Investigators : different disciplines

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Qualitative report writing

Results of qualitative research can be presented as

A book,
Journal article or
As a report submitted to a funding agencies.
A summery of findings may be presented at
 conferences or
 published by the media
The styles of writing also varies significantly from
narrative style to a format with tables , graphs and picture

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Qualitative report writing…..

A more structured format is suggested to be composed of

6 major sections
I. Introduction
II. Setting
III. Design
IV. Finding
V. Discussion
VI. Bibliography
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 ANY ???
THANK YOU

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