AC generator : It is a device which converts mechanical energy in to electrical energy.

Principle : It is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction, i,e, whenever

there is change in magnetic flux linked with a coil, an emf is induced in the coil
Working :
When the armature coil is rotated in a uniform magnetic field, effective area of
coil changes continuously due to which magnetic flux linked with it changes. Hence an
emf is induced in the circuit and a current flows through the coil.
At any instant the magnetic flux linked with the coil
BA BA
AC GENERATOR
Alternating Current : Output of Alternating Current Generator
Alternating Current : Definition
 TRANSFORMER
A transformer can be defined as a static device which helps in the transformation of
electric power in one circuit to electric power of the same frequency in another
circuit.
Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in
electric power applications.
The voltage can be raised or lowered, but with a proportional increase or
decrease in the current ratings. This gives us two special names for
transformers:
A transformer which increases the alternating voltage is called step up
transformer.
A transformer which decreases the alternating voltage is called step
down transformer.
TRANSFORMERS
The above image is of a mobile charger. Read the specifications printed on it carefully.
AC Adapter
Model no DV-1250UP
Input 230V~50Hz 7W
Output 12 V DC 500mA
NOTE. An advantage of DC is that it is easy to store in batteries.
That is why portable electronics – flashlights, cell phones, and
laptops use DC power.

AC electricity is a little more complicated because it switches

back and forth, but its advantage is that it can be transmitted
economically over long distances. That is why AC power
comes in through the power lines to our homes. Stationary
appliances that use electricity directly from the Mains–
lamps, fans, TV, refrigerators, and washing machines use AC
power.
 PRINCIPLE OF WORKING OF TRANSFORMERS
Transformers work on the principle of mutual
inductance.

An emf is induced in a coil due to changing current in a coil in

its vicinity, This is because the condition for electromagnetic
induction is satisfied.
The changing current in one coil causes a changing magnetic flux around it. If the
second coil in the varying magnetic field of the first, an emf is induced in the second
coil.

In other words when the magnetic flux linked with a coil changes, an
emf is induced in another coil placed near it.
A basic transformer consists of two coils that are electrically separate and inductive, but
are magnetically linked. The working principle of the transformer can be understood
from the figure below.
The transformer has primary and secondary windings and core
laminations are joined in the form of strips in between the strips you
can see that there are some narrow gaps right through the cross-section
of the core.

Both the coils have high mutual inductance. A mutual emf is induced in
the transformer from the alternating flux that is set up in the laminated
core, due to the coil that is connected to a source of alternating voltage.
Most of the alternating flux developed by this coil is linked with the other
coil and thus produces the mutual induced electro-motive force. The so
produced electro-motive force can be explained with the help of
Faraday‟s laws of Electromagnetic Induction
STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER STEP UP TRANSFORMER
So we can say
A transformer consists of two sets of coils, insulated from each [Link] are wound on a
soft-iron core, either one on top of the other as in Fig. (a)

or on separate limbs of the core as in Fig. (b). this ensures good linkage
One of the coils called the primary coil has Np turns.
The other coil is called the secondary coil; it has Ns turns.
The primary coil is also called the input coil and the secondary coil is the output coil of the
transformer.
The core is made up of insulated sheets to avoid heating due to eddy currents

WORKING OF A TRANSFORMER
When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary, the resulting current
produces an alternating magnetic flux which links the secondary and
induces an emf in it.
The value of this emf depends on
1. The number of turns in the primary and secondary coils
2. Linkage between primary and secondary coils
[Link] alternating voltage supplied to the primary coil
If this were not so, the primary current would be infinite since the primary has zero
resistance (as assumed). If the secondary is an open circuit or has a high resistance or the
current taken from it is small, then to a good approximation Where VS is the voltage across
the secondary. So above equation can be written as:
 TRANSFORMATION RATIO
For a particular transformer with known number of turns in primary and
secondary coils. The ratio of number of turns in the secondary to that in the
primary is called transformation ratio Represented by K.
EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER
ENERGY LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER
Give reasons why?
a) A transformer cannot be used with DC.
b) A transformer only changes the amplitude of the alternating voltage , it
does not change the frequency of the alternating voltage.
c) An ideal transformer is not possible .
d) A step down transformer cannot be used as step up transformer merely by
interchanging the primary and secondary coils .
e) When current flows in the transformer coils the core becomes hot.
f) Primary and secondary coils do not have any electrical contact but current
flows in the secondary coil whenever alternating current is supplied to the
primary coil .
g) The primary and secondary coils are mounted on a fixed frame core .
ANSWERS
EXAMPLE
A transformer steps down 220V AC to 2.2 V AC.
a) Determine the transformation ratio.
b) What will be the output voltage if 110 volt AC is applied to the same transformer?
EXAMPLE
Out of the two arrangements given below for windings of primary and secondary coils in a
transformer.
a) Which arrangement do you think arrangement do you think will have higher efficiency and
why?
b) B) show in an ideal transformer when a voltage is stepped up by a certain factor the current
in the secondary is stepped down by the same factor.
c) Give reasons why it is not possible to make an ideal transformer.
 ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE
1. The RMS value, of a sinusoidal alternating current/ voltage, is 𝟏/√𝟐
of the peak( maximum) value.
[Link] RMS value, of a sinusoidal alternating current/ voltage, is taken as
its representative value for all practical purposes.
[Link] is the RMS value that is spoken of as the VALUE of the alternating
current/ voltage.
FOR EXAMPLE,
When we say that the household ac voltage, in India, is 220 volt. We
are implying that the RMS value of supplied voltage is 220volt. The
corresponding peak value, of this household voltage, would be √2 (equal
to approximately 1.414) times 220 volt, 𝐕𝐩𝐞𝐚𝐤 𝐨𝐫 V𝐦𝐚𝐱 =
√𝟐𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟒 × 𝟐𝟐𝟎 = 𝟑𝟏𝟏 𝐕𝐨𝐥t.
" The RMS value, of a given sinusoidal alternating current/ voltage,
( having a time period T) is that value of the steady dc current /
voltage ,which, in a time T, produces the same amount of heat, in a
given resistor, that the given alternating current/ voltage does over its
one complete cycle."
In other words, the RMS values can be used to calculate the average
rate of energy dissipation in resistors (i.e., the average power, of the
given alternating current/ voltage, over one complete cycle),in much
the same way as we do for dc, or steady, currents/voltages.

The RMS value is the effective value of a varying voltage or

current. It is the equivalent steady DC (constant) value which
gives the same effect.
FOR EXAMPLE
A lamp connected to a 6V RMS AC supply will shine
with the same brightness when connected to a steady
6V DC supply.
Or
A heater connected to a 9V RMS AC supply would
produce the same heat as when connected to a 9V DC
supply
ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE OF ALTERNATING CURRENT
AND VOLTAGE
We know that time average value of AC over one
cycle is zero. The instantaneous current, I and the
time average of AC over a half cycle would be
positive for one half cycle and negative for the
other half cycle;
However, the quantity i2 would always remain
positive. The time average of quantity i2 would be
given by:

This is known as the mean square current.

Average Value and RMS Value of AC
 AC Circuit with a Pure Resistor: R
E = E0 sin ωt

I=E /R
= (E0 / R) sin ωt E = E0 sin ωt

I = I0 sin ωt (where I0 = E0 / R and R = E0 / I0)

Emf and current are in same phase.

E = E0 sin ωt y
I = I0 sin ωt
E E,I0 E0
I0
I0
0
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt

T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T

t 0 ωt
x
 AC Circuit with a Pure Inductor:
E = E0 sin ωt
Induced emf in the inductor is - L (dI / dt) L
In order to maintain the flow of current, the
applied emf must be equal and opposite to the
induced emf. E = E0 sin ωt

I = ∫ (E0 / L) sin ωt dt
E = L (dI / dt)
E0 sin ωt = L (dI / dt) I = (E0 / ωL) ( - cos ωt )

dI = (E0 / L) sin ωt dt I = I0 sin (ωt - π / 2)

(where I0 = E0 / ωL and XL = ωL = E0 / I0) Current lags behind emf by π/2 rad.

XL is Inductive Reactance.
Its SI unit is ohm. y E0
E = E0 sin ωt
I = I0 sin (ωt - π / 2)
E E,I0
I0
ωt
0 0
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt π/2 x
T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T
t I0
AC Circuit with a Capacitor:
E = E0 sin ωt C

q = CE = CE0 sin ωt
E = E0 sin ωt
I = dq / dt
= (d / dt) [CE0 sin ωt] (where I0 = E0 / (1 / ωC) and
I = [E0 / (1 / ωC)] ( cos ωt ) XC = 1 / ωC = E0 / I0)
I = I0 sin (ωt + π / 2)
XC is Capacitive Reactance.
Current leads the emf by π/2 radians. Its SI unit is ohm.

y E0
E = E0 sin ωt
I = I0 sin (ωt + π / 2)
I0
E E,I0
I0
π/2
0 ωt
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt
0 x
T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T
t
Variation of XL with Frequency:
XL
I0 = E0 / ωL and XL = ωL
XL is Inductive Reactance and ω = 2π f

XL = 2π f L i.e. XL α f
0 f

Variation of XC with Frequency:

XC
I0 = E0 / (1/ωC) and XC = 1 / ωC
XC is Inductive Reactance and ω = 2π f

XC = 1 / 2π f C i.e. XC α 1 / f
0 f

TIPS:
1) Inductance (L) can not decrease Direct Current. It can only decrease
Alternating Current.
2) Capacitance (C) allows AC to flow through it but blocks DC.
 L R
AC Circuit with L, C, R in Series C
Combination: VR
VL
The applied emf appears as Voltage VC
drops VR, VL and VC across R, L and C
respectively.
1) In R, current and voltage are in E = E0 sin ωt
phase. VL VL
2) In L, current lags behind voltage by
- VC
π/2
π/2 π/2
3) In C, current leads the voltage by
0
π/2 π/2 I VR I VR
E = √ [VR2 + (VL – VC)2] VC VC
E
I= E
√ [R2 + (XL – XC)2] VL - VC Φ

Z = √ [R2 + (XL – XC)2] I VR

E = √ [VR2 + (VL – VC)2]
Z = √ [R + (ω L – 1/ωC) ]
2 2

XL – X C ω L – 1/ωC
tan Φ = or tan Φ =
R R
 XL – X C ω L – 1/ωC
tan Φ = or tan Φ =
R R

Special Cases:
Case I: When XL > XC i.e. ω L > 1/ωC,
tan Φ = +ve or Φ is +ve
The current lags behind the emf by phase angle Φ and the LCR circuit is
inductance - dominated circuit.

Case II: When XL < XC i.e. ω L < 1/ωC,

tan Φ = -ve or Φ is -ve
The current leads the emf by phase angle Φ and the LCR circuit is capacitance -
dominated circuit.
Case III: When XL = XC i.e. ω L = 1/ωC,
tan Φ = 0 or Φ is 0°
The current and the emf are in same phase. The impedance does not
depend on the frequency of the applied emf. LCR circuit behaves like a purely
resistive circuit.
Resonance in AC Circuit with L, C, R:
When XL = XC i.e. ω L = 1/ωC, tan Φ = 0 or Φ is 0° and
Z = √ [R2 + (ω L – 1/ωC)2] becomes Zmin = R and I0max = E / R
i.e. The impedance offered by the circuit is minimum and the current is
maximum. This condition is called resonant condition of LCR circuit and
the frequency is called resonant frequency.
At resonant angular frequency ωr, R 1 < R2 < R3
I0
ωr L = 1/ωrC or ωr = 1 / √LC or fr = 1 / (2π √LC)
Resonant Curve & Q - Factor: I0max
Band width = 2 ∆ ω
Quality factor (Q – factor) is defined as the ratio R1
of resonant frequency to band width. I0max / √2

Q = ωr / 2 ∆ ω
It can also be defined as the ratio of potential drop R2
across either the inductance or the capacitance to
R3
the potential drop across the resistance.
0 ωr
Q = V L / VR or Q = VC / VR ω
ωr - ∆ ω ωr + ∆ ω
or Q = ωr L / R or Q = 1 / ωrCR