Note that the following lectures include

animations and PowerPoint effects such as

fly ins and transitions that require you to be

in PowerPoint's Slide Show mode

(presentation mode).
 Chapter 18
Cosmology in the 21st Century
Guidepost
This chapter marks a watershed in our study of
astronomy. Since Chapter 1, our discussion has focused
on learning to understand the universe. Our outward
journey has discussed the appearance of the night sky,
the birth and death of stars, and the interactions of the
galaxies. Now we reach the limit of our journey in space
and time, the origin and evolution of the universe as a
whole.
The ideas in this chapter are the biggest and the most
difficult in all of science. Our imaginations can hardly
grasp such ideas as the edge of the universe and the first
instant of time. Perhaps it is fitting that the biggest
questions are the most challenging.
But this chapter is not an end to our story. Once we
complete it, we will have a grasp of the nature of the
universe, and we will be ready to focus on our place in that
Outline
I. Introduction to the Universe
A. The Edge-Center Problem
B. The Necessity of a Beginning
C. Cosmic Expansion
D. The Necessity of a Big Bang
E. The Cosmic Background Radiation
F. The Story of the Big Bang

II. The Shape of Space and Time

A. Looking at the Universe
B. The Shape of the Expanding Universe
C. Model Universes
D. Dark Matter in Cosmology
Outline (continued)
III. 21st-Century Cosmology
A. Inflation
B. The Acceleration of the Universe
C. The Origin of Structure and the Curvature of the
Universe
Olbers’s Paradox
Why is the sky dark at night?

If the universe is infinite, then

every line of sight should end on
the surface of a star at some
 The night point.
sky should be as
bright as the surface of stars!

Solution to
Olbers’s Paradox:
If the universe had a beginning, then we
can only see light from galaxies that has
had time to travel to us since the
beginning of the universe.

 The visible universe is finite!

Hubble’s Law

Distant galaxies are

receding from us with
a speed proportional
to distance
The Expanding Universe
On large scales, galaxies are moving apart,
with velocity proportional to distance.
It’s not galaxies moving through space.
Space is expanding, carrying the galaxies along!

The galaxies themselves are not expanding!

Expanding Space
Analogy:
A loaf of raisin bread where the
dough is rising and expanding,
taking the raisins with it.
Raisin Bread

(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)

The Expanding Universe (2)
This does not mean that we are at the center of the
universe!

You have the same impression

from any other galaxy as well.
Finite, But Without Edge?
2-dimensional analogy:
Surface of a sphere:

Surface is finite, but has no edge.

For a creature living on the

sphere, having no sense of the
third dimension, there’s no center
(on the sphere!): All points are
equal.

Alternative: Any point on the

surface can be defined as the
center of a coordinate system.
The Necessity of a Big Bang
If galaxies are moving away from each other
with a speed proportional to distance, there
must have been a beginning, when everything
was concentrated in one single point:

The Big Bang!

?
The Age of the Universe
Knowing the current rate of expansion of the
universe, we can estimate the time it took for
galaxies to move as far apart as they are today:

Time = distance / velocity

velocity = (Hubble constant) * distance

T ≈ d/v = 1/H ~ 14 billion years

Looking Back Towards the Early Universe
The more distant the objects we
observe, the further back into the
past of the universe we are looking.
The Cosmic Background Radiation
The radiation from the
very early phase of the
universe should still be
detectable today

R. Wilson & A. Penzias

Was, in fact, discovered in

mid-1960s as the Cosmic
Microwave Background:
Blackbody radiation
with a temperature of T
= 2.73 K
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation

(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)

The History of the Universe
Universe cools down as time passes

Universe expands as time passes

The Early History of the Universe
Electron
Positron
Gamma-ray photon

Electrons, positrons, and gamma-

rays in equilibrium between pair
production and annihilation
The Early History of the Universe (2)
Protons and neutrons form a few 25% of mass in helium
helium nuclei; the rest of protons 75% in hydrogen
remain as hydrogen nuclei
No stable
nuclei with
5–8
protons

 Almost no
elements heavier
than helium are
produced.
The Early History of the Universe (3)
Photons are incessantly scattered Photons have a
by free electrons; photons are in blackbody spectrum at
the same temperature
equilibrium with matter
as matter.

Radiation dominated era

Recombination
Protons and electrons recombine
to form atoms => universe z ≈1000
becomes transparent for photons

Transition to matter
dominated era
The Cosmic Background Radiation (2)
After recombination, photons can
travel freely through space.

Their wavelength is only stretched

(red shifted) by cosmic expansion.

Recombination:
z = 1000; T = 3000 K

This is what we can observe today as the cosmic

background radiation!
Reionization
After less than ~ 1 billion years,
the first stars form.
Ultraviolet radiation from the first
stars re-ionizes gas in the early
universe

Formation of the Reionization

first stars
 universe
becomes
opaque
again
The Cosmological Principle
Considering the largest scales in the universe, we
make the following fundamental assumptions:
1) Homogeneity: On the largest scales, the local universe has the
same physical properties throughout the
universe.

Every region has the same physical

properties (mass density, expansion
rate, visible vs. dark matter, etc.)

2) Isotropy: On the largest scales, the local universe looks the

same in any direction that one observes.

You should see the same large-

scale structure in any direction.

3) Universality: The laws of physics are the same everywhere

in the universe.
Shape and Geometry of the Universe
Back to our 2-
dimensional analogy:
How can a 2-D creature investigate
the geometry of the sphere?

Measure curvature of its space!

Flat surface
(zero curvature)

Closed surface Open surface

(positive curvature) (negative curvature)
Cosmology and General Relativity
According to the theory of general
relativity, gravity is caused by
the curvature of space-time.
The effects of gravity on the largest cosmological
scales should be related to the curvature of space-time!

The curvature of space-time, in turn, is determined by

the distribution of mass and energy in the universe.

Space-time tells matter how to move;

matter tells space-time how to curve.
Deceleration of the Universe

• Expansion of the universe should be slowed down

by mutual gravitational attraction of the galaxies.

• Fate of the universe depends on the matter density

in the universe.

• Define “critical density”, c, which is just enough to

slow the cosmic expansion to a halt at infinity.
 Model Universes
 < c => universe
Size scale of the Universe will expand forever
Maximum
age of the iv e rs e
l at U n
universe: => F
 =  c

~ 1/H0

 > c => Universe

will collapse back

Time

If the density of matter equaled the critical density, then the

curvature of space-time by the matter would be just
sufficient to make the geometry of the universe flat!
Dark Matter
• Combined mass of all “visible” matter (i.e. emitting
any kind of radiation) in the universe adds up to
much less than the critical density.

• Gravitational
lensing shows
that some clusters
contain 10 times
as much mass as
is directly visible.
The Nature of Dark Matter
Can dark matter be composed of normal matter?
• If so, then its mass would
mostly come from protons
and neutrons = baryons
• The density of baryons
right after the big bang
leaves a unique imprint in
the abundances of
deuterium and lithium.

• Density of baryonic matter

is only ~ 4 % of critical
density.
• Most dark matter must be non-baryonic!
Baryonic Dark Matter
Nature of baryonic dark matter still very uncertain
and speculative.
Brightness of background star One component:
MAssive Compact
Halo Objects =
“MACHOs”:

Small compact
objects (e.g.,
brown dwarfs,
small black holes)
acting as
Time gravitational
lenses.
Distant background
Earth MACHO star
Problems with the Classical,
Decelerating Universe
1) The flatness problem:
The universe seems to be nearly flat.
Even a tiny deviation from perfect flatness
at the time of the big bang should have
been amplified to a huge deviation today.
=> Extreme fine tuning required!
2) The isotropy of the cosmic background:
If information can only travel through the universe at the
speed of light, then structure in the cosmic background
should not be correlated over large angular scales!
 Contradiction to almost perfect isotropy
of the cosmic background!
21st Century Cosmology
The solution: Inflation!

• Inflation: period of
sudden expansion
during the very
early evolution of
the universe

• Triggered by the
sudden energy
release from the
decoupling of the
strong and
electroweak forces
Measuring the Deceleration of the Universe

By observing type
Ia supernovae,
astronomers can
measure the
Hubble relation at
large distances
Distance 
recession speed
Size scale of the
universe  rate
of expansion

It was expected that this would measure the deceleration

of the universe, but …
The Accelerating Universe
Flat decelerating Universe

Apparent Magnitude of
Type Ia Supernovae

Flat accelerating Universe

Red Shift z

In fact, SN Ia measurements showed that the

universe is accelerating!
Confirmation of the Acceleration
Observation of the high-red-shift (z = 1.7) SN Ia
SN1997ff seems to confirm the acceleration of the
universe.
The Cosmological Constant
• Cosmic acceleration can be explained with the
“Cosmological Constant”, (upper-case lambda)

•  is a free parameter in Einstein’s fundamental

equation of general relativity; previously
believed to be 0.

• Energy corresponding to  can account for

the missing mass/energy (E = m*c2) needed to
produce a flat space-time.

 “Dark Energy”
Large Scale Structure

Distribution of bright galaxies in the Virgo region

indicates the Virgo cluster and presence of more
distant, larger scale structure
Large Scale Structure (2)
A large survey of
distant galaxies
shows the largest
structures in the
universe:

Filaments and
walls of galaxy
superclusters, and
voids, basically
empty space.
Cosmology with the Cosmic Microwave
Background
If the universe were perfectly homogeneous on all
scales at the time of reionization (z = 1000), then the
CMB should be perfectly isotropic over the sky.

Instead, it shows small-scale fluctuations:

Fluctuations in the Cosmic Microwave
Background
Angular size of the CMB fluctuations allows us to
probe the geometry of space-time!

CMB fluctuations have a characteristic size of 1 degree.

Analysis of the Cosmic Background
Fluctuations

Analyze frequency
of occurrence of
fluctuations on a
particular angular
scale

 Universehas a
flat geometry
New Terms
cosmology critical density
Olbers’s paradox oscillating universe theory
observable universe nonbaryonic matter
big bang hot dark matter
Hubble time cold dark matter
cosmic microwave MACHOs
background radiation flatness problem
steady-state theory horizon problem
antimatter inflationary universe
recombination grand unified theories
dark age (GUTs)
reionization cosmological constant ()
isotropy quintessence
homogeneity dark energy
cosmological principle supercluster
closed universe
flat universe
open universe
Discussion Questions
1. Do you think Copernicus would have accepted the
cosmological principle? Why or why not?

2. If we reject any model of the universe that has an

edge in space because we can’t comprehend such a
thing, shouldn’t we also reject any model of the universe
that has a beginning or an ending? Are those just edges
in time, or is there a difference?
Quiz Questions
1. What assumptions are made in Olbers's paradox?

a. The universe is finite.

b. The universe is infinite.
c. The universe is uniformly filled with stars.
d. Both a and c above.
e. Both b and c above.
Quiz Questions
2. What cosmological inference can you draw from the
darkness of the night sky?

a. The universe is infinite.

b. The Sun is below the horizon.
c. Earth's atmosphere scatters light.
d. The universe is not infinitely old.
e. The apparent magnitude of bright galaxies is less than that
of bright stars.
Quiz Questions
3. If the universe has no edge, then it must also have no

a. age.
b. mass.
c. center.
d. temperature.
e. All of the above.
Quiz Questions
4. What is meant by the term "observable universe"?

a. It is everything that exists.

b. It is the part of everything that exists that we can see.
c. It is the part of everything that exists that is above the
horizon at one instant.
d. It is the part of everything that exists that is within our
galaxy.
e. It is the part of everything that exists that is within the Solar
System.
Quiz Questions
5. What evidence do we have that the universe is expanding?

a. Earth is gaining mass and volume as it collects about 40,000

tons of meteoric dust each year.
b. As the Sun ages, its surface temperature decreases and its
diameter increases.
c. As stars age, some become giants and supergiants.
d. The amount of redshift in the spectra of distant galaxies is
proportional to their distance.
e. All of the above.
Quiz Questions
6. If the Hubble constant is 100 km/s/Mpc, to the first
approximation how old is the universe?

a. 20 billion years.
b. 17 billion years.
c. 14 billion years.
d. 12 billion years.
e. 10 billion years.
Quiz Questions
7. Where did the Big Bang occur?

a. At the center of Earth.

b. At the center of the Sun.
c. At the center of the Milky Way.
d. At the center of the Local Group.
e. Everywhere.
Quiz Questions
8. The early universe was

a. hot.
b. cool.
c. at high density.
d. Both a and c above.
e. Both a and b above.
Quiz Questions
9. When the universe was one second old, all the initial protons
and neutrons had already formed; however, electrons had not
yet formed. Why?

a. Electrons have a negative charge and cannot exist in a

positive environment.
b. The average photon energy was too low to produce more
protons and neutrons, and too high to produce electrons.
c. Protons and neutrons move slower than electrons and had
fewer collisions with high-energy photons.
d. Electron formation requires a higher temperature
environment than proton and neutron formation.
e. Electrons combine with positrons and their mutual
annihilation forms two gamma rays.
Quiz Questions
10. What forms of normal matter existed when the universe
was three minutes old?

a. No matter was present at this time.

b. Only neutral atoms of hydrogen existed.
c. Hydrogen nuclei and independent electrons were present.
d. Neutral atoms of hydrogen, helium, and a trace of lithium
were present.
e. Hydrogen nuclei, helium nuclei, a trace of lithium nuclei, and
independent electrons were present.
Quiz Questions
11. Quasars have red shifts as high as 6. What has a red shift
of about 1100?

a. The spectra of the first stars that formed.

b. The cosmic background radiation.
c. Radiation from the recombination event.
d. Both a and b above.
e. Both b and c above.
Quiz Questions
12. What are the characteristics of the spectrum of the cosmic
background radiation?

a. It is a blackbody curve with a wavelength of maximum

intensity of about one millimeter.
b. It is a continuous spectrum that is red shifted into the
microwave band.
c. It is an emission line spectrum that is red shifted into the
microwave band.
d. It is an absorption line spectrum that is red shifted into the
microwave band.
e. Both a and b above.
Quiz Questions
13. Which type of universe has a rate of expansion
approaching a positive value as time approaches infinity?

a. An open universe.
b. A closed universe.
c. A flat universe.
d. Both a and b above.
e. All of the above.
Quiz Questions
14. If the average density of the universe is greater than the
critical density, the universe is

a. open.
b. closed.
c. flat.
d. open or flat.
e. None of the above.
Quiz Questions
15. What observational evidence implies that most of the
universe is dark matter?

a. Large-scale gravitational fields are much stronger than can

be accounted for by observed matter.
b. Large-scale gravitational fields are much weaker than can
be accounted for by observed matter.
c. Small-scale gravitational fields are much stronger than can
be accounted for by observed matter.
d. Small-scale gravitational fields are much weaker than can be
accounted for by observed matter.
e. It blocks the light from distant stars.
Quiz Questions
16. Why do astronomers think that most of the dark matter
cannot be baryonic?

a. The measured abundances of deuterium and lithium in

distant gas clouds suggests that baryonic dark matter can
account for at most 5% of the critical density.
b. Measurements of galaxies and galaxy clusters indicate that
the average density of the universe is almost 30% of the critical
density.
c. Baryonic matter has yet to be detected anywhere in the
universe.
d. Both a and b above.
e. All of the above.
Quiz Questions
17. Which question is not answered by standard big bang
theory?

a. Why is the universe so very close to flat?

b. Why is the cosmic background radiation so smooth?
c. Why is the speed of light the same for all observers?
d. Both a and b above.
e. All of the above.
Quiz Questions
18. What alteration to the standard big bang models solves
both the flatness and horizon problems?

a. The unification of the electromagnetic force and the weak

force.
b. The unification of the electroweak force and the strong force.
c. Sudden rapid expansion early during the first second of the
universe.
d. Both a and b above.
e. All of the above.
Quiz Questions
19. What was found in 1998 by two independent teams of
astronomers that observed type Ia supernovae to determine
galactic distances, in order to find by how much gravity has
slowed the rate of expansion of the universe:

a. The universe's rate of expansion is slowing more than

expected.
b. The universe's rate of expansion is slowing less than
expected.
c. The universe's rate of expansion has not changed.
d. The universe's rate of expansion is increasing.
e. The universe is contracting.
Quiz Questions
20. According to the WMAP (Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy
Probe) results what is the nature of our universe?

a. The universe is 4% baryonic matter, 23% dark matter, and

73% dark energy.
b. The universe is about 13.7 billion years old.
c. Inflation occurred everywhere early in the first second of
expansion.
d. The universe is flat, accelerating, and will expand forever.
e. All of the above.
Answers
1. e 11. e
2. d 12. e
3. c 13. a
4. b 14. b
5. d 15. a
6. e 16. d
7. e 17. d
8. d 18. c
9. b 19. d
10. e 20. e