CAMBRID

Institute of Technology
GE
Bengalore, Karnataka, India

INTRODUCTION
TO
ELECTRONICS &
COMMUNICATIO
N
(25ES11A)

Prof. Hariprasad T L
Assistant Professor
 SYLLABUS

Embedded Systems
Definition, Embedded systems vs general computing systems, Classification of Embedded
Systems, Major application areas of Embedded Systems, Elements of an Embedded System,
Core of the Embedded System, Microprocessor vs Microcontroller, RISC vs CISC, Harvard vs
Von-Neumann.

Memory, Sensors and Actuators

Instrumentation and control systems, Transducers, Sensors.,LED, 7-Segment LED Display

05
 Text Books

1 2

Introduction to Electronic Circuits –

Embedded Fundamentals &
Systems Applications
Shibu K V Mike Tooley
Tata McGraw Hill Education Elsevier
Private Limited 2nd Edition, 4th Edition, 2015
2017

6
Module 4
EMBEDDED
SYSTEMS
 What is an
Embedded System?
Hardware + Firmware
Specific Task

03
Where do we use Embedded Systems?
04
Introduction

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 7

 What is an Embedded
•System?
An embedded system is an electronic/electro-mechanical
system designed to perform a specific function and is a
combination of both hardware and firmware (software).
• Every embedded system is unique and the hardware as
well as the firmware is highly specialised to the application
domain.

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 8

Embedded Systems vs. General
Computing Systems
• The computing revolution began with the general purpose
computing requirements. Later it was realised that the
general computing requirements are not sufficient for the
embedded computing requirements.
• The embedded computing requirements demand
‘something special’ in terms of response to stimuli,
meeting the computational deadlines, power efficiency,
limited memory capability, etc.

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 9

General Purpose Computing System Embedded System
A system which is a combination of a generic hardware and a General A system which is a combination of special purpose hardware and
Purpose Operating System for executing a variety of applications embedded OS for executing a specific set of applications

Contains a General Purpose Operating System (GPOS) May or may not contain an operating system for functioning

Applications are alterable (programmable) by the user (It is possible The firmware of the embedded system is pre-programmed and it is
for the end user to re-install the operating system, and also add or non-alterable by the end-user (There may be exceptions for system
remove user applications) supporting OS kernel image flashing through special hardware settings)

Performance is the key deciding factor in the selection of Application-specific requirements (like performance, power
the system. Always, ‘Faster is Better’ requirements, memory usage, etc.) are the key deciding factors

Less/not at all tailored towards reduced operating power Highly tailored to take advantage of the power saving modes
requirements, options for different levels of power management supported by the hardware and the operating system

Response requirements are not time-critical For certain category of embedded systems like mission critical
systems, the response time requirement is highly critical

Need not be deterministic in execution behaviour Execution behaviour is deterministic for certain types of
embedded systems like ‘Hard Real Time’ systems

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 10

 Classification of Embedded
•Systems
Some of the criteria used in the classification of embedded
systems are:
1. Based on generation
2. Complexity and performance requirements
3. Based on deterministic behaviour
4. Based on triggering

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 11

 Classification Based on
•Generation
First Generation
• Second Generation
• Third Generation
• Fourth Generation
• Next Generation

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 12

Classification Based on Generation
(continued)
• First Generation
• Early embedded systems were built around 8-bit microprocessors
like 8085 and Z80 and 4-bit microcontrollers.
• Simple in hardware circuits with firmware developed in assembly
code.
• E.g.: Digital telephone keypads, stepper motor control units, etc.

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 13

Classification Based on Generation
(continued)
• Second Generation
• Embedded systems built around 16-bit microprocessors and 8-bit
or 16-bit microcontrollers.
• Instruction set were much more complex and powerful than the
first generation.
• Some of the second generation embedded systems contained
embedded operating systems for their operation.
• E.g.: Data acquisition systems, SCADA systems, etc.

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 14

Classification Based on Generation
(continued)
• Third Generation
• Embedded systems built around 32-bit microprocessors and 16-bit
microcontrollers.
• Application and domain specific processors/controllers like Digital
Signal Processors (DSP) and Application Specific Integrated Circuits
(ASICs) came into picture.
• The instruction set of processors became more complex and powerful
and the concept of instruction pipelining also evolved.
• Dedicated embedded real time and general purpose operating systems
entered into the embedded market.
• Embedded systems spread its ground to areas like robotics, media,
industrial process control, networking, etc.

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 15

Classification Based on Generation
(continued)
• Fourth Generation
• The advent of System on Chips (SoC), reconfigurable processors
and multicore processors are bringing high performance, tight
integration and miniaturisation into the embedded device
market.
• The SoC technique implements a total system on a chip by
implementing different functionalities with a processor core on
an integrated circuit.
• They make use of high performance real time embedded
operating systems for their functioning.
• E.g.: Smart phone devices, Mobile Internet Devices
(MIDs), etc.
Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 16
Classification Based on Generation
(continued)
• Next Generation
• The processor and embedded market is highly dynamic and
demanding.
• The next generation embedded systems are expected to meet
growing demands in the market.

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 17

Classification Based on Complexity and
Performance
• Small-Scale Embedded Systems
• Medium-Scale Embedded Systems
• Large-Scale Embedded Systems/Complex Systems

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 18

Classification Based on Complexity and
Performance (continued)
• Small-Scale Embedded Systems
• Simple in application needs and the performance requirements
are not time critical.
• E.g.: An electronic toy
• Usually built around low performance and low cost 8-bit or 16-bit
microprocessors/microcontrollers.
• May or may not contain an operating system for its functioning.

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 19

Classification Based on Complexity and
Performance (continued)
• Medium-Scale Embedded Systems
• Slightly complex in hardware and firmware (software)
requirements.
• Usually built around medium performance, low cost 16-bit or 32-
bit microprocessors/microcontrollers or digital signal processors.
• Usually contain an embedded operating system (either general
purpose or real time operating system) for functioning.

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 20

Classification Based on Complexity and
Performance (continued)
• Large-Scale Embedded Systems/Complex Systems
• Highly complex in hardware and firmware (software) requirements.
• They are employed in mission critical applications demanding high
performance.
• Usually built around high performance 32-bit or 64-bit RISC
processors/controllers or Reconfigurable System on Chip (RSoC) or multi-
core processors and programmable logic devices.
• May contain multiple processors/controllers and co-units/hardware
accelerators for offloading the processing requirements from the main
processor of the system.
• Decoding/encoding of media, cryptographic function implementation, etc.
are examples of processing requirements which can be implemented using a
co-processor/hardware accelerator.
• Usually contain a high performance real time operating system (RTOS) for
task scheduling, prioritization and management.
Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 21
Classification Based on Deterministic
Behaviour
• Applicable for ‘Real Time’ systems.
• The application/task execution behaviour can be either
deterministic or non-deterministic.
• Based on the execution behaviour, real time embedded systems are
classified into Hard Real Time and Soft Real Time systems.

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 22

 Classification Based on
•Triggering
Embedded systems which are ‘Reactive’ in nature (like process
control systems in industrial control applications) can be classified
based on the trigger.
• Reactive systems can be either event-triggered or time-triggered.

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 23

Major Application Areas of Embedded
Systems
1. Consumer electronics: Camcorders, cameras, etc.
2. Household appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine,
refrigerators, microwave oven, etc.
3. Home automation and security systems: Air conditioners,
sprinklers, intruder detection alarms, closed circuit television
(CCTV) cameras, fire alarms, etc.
4. Automotive industry: Anti-lock braking systems (ABS), engine
control, ignition systems, automatic navigation systems, etc.
5. Telecom: Cellular telephones, telephone switches, handset
multimedia applications, etc.

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 24

Major Application Areas of Embedded
Systems (continued)
6. Computer peripherals: Printers, scanners, fax machines, etc.
7. Computer networking systems: Network routers, switches, hubs,
firewalls, etc.
8. Healthcare: Different kinds of scanners, EEG, ECG machines, etc.
9. Measurements & Instrumentation: Digital multimeters, digital
CROs, logic analyzers, PLC systems, etc.
10. Banking & Retail: Automated teller machines (ATM) and currency
counters, point of sales (POS), etc.
11. Card readers: Barcode, smart card readers, hand held devices,
etc.
Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 25
Major Application Areas of Embedded
Systems (continued)
12. Wearable Devices: Health and fitness trackers, Smartphone
screen extension for notifications, etc.
13. Cloud Computing and Internet of Things (IoT)

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 26

The Typical Embedded
System
ELEMENTS OF AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 27

The Typical Embedded
System

Fig: Elements of an Embedded System

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 28

The Typical Embedded System
(continued)
• It contains a single chip controller, which acts as the master brain of
the system.
• The controller can be
 A microprocessor or
 A microcontroller or
 A Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) device or
 A Digital Signal Processor (DSP) or
 An Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)/Application Specific
Standard Product (ASSP)

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 29

The Typical Embedded System
(continued)
• An embedded system can be viewed as a reactive system.
• The control is achieved by processing the information coming from
the sensors and user interfaces, and controlling some actuators
that regulate the physical variable.
• Key boards, push button switches, etc. are examples for common
user interface input devices.
• LEDs, liquid crystal displays, piezoelectric buzzers, etc. are examples
for common user interface output devices for a typical embedded
system.

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 30

The Typical Embedded System
(continued)
• The memory of the system is responsible for holding the control algorithm and other
important configuration details.
• For most of embedded systems, the memory for storing the algorithm or configuration data is
of fixed type, which is a kind of Read Only Memory (ROM).
• It is not available for the end user for modifications
• The memory is protected from unwanted user interaction by implementing some kind of
memory protection mechanism.
• The most common types of memories used in embedded systems for control algorithm
storage are OTP, PROM, UVEPROM, EEPROM and FLASH.
• Sometimes the system requires temporary memory for performing arithmetic operations or
control algorithm execution and this type of memory is known as "working memory".
• Random Access Memory (RAM) is used in most of the systems as the working memory.
• Various types of RAM like SRAM, DRAM and NVRAM are used for this purpose.

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 31

The Typical Embedded System
(continued)
• Apart from these, communication interface is essential for
communicating with various subsystems of the embedded system
and with the external world.
• The communication interfaces may be used to achieve onboard
(I2C, SPI, UART, parallel bus interface, etc.) or external
communication (wireless interfaces like Infrared, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi,
etc.)

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 32

 Core of the Embedded
System
• Embedded systems are domain and application specific and are built around a
central core.
• The core of the embedded system falls into any one of the following
categories:
1. General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors
1. Microprocessors
2. Microcontrollers
3. Digital Signal Processors
2. Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)
3. Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)
4. Commercial off-the-shelf Components (COTS)
Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 33
 Microprocessor vs.
•Microcontroller
A Microprocessor is a silicon chip representing a central processing
unit (CPU), which is capable of performing arithmetic as well as
logical operations according to a pre-defined set of instructions.
• A Microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that contains a CPU,
scratch pad RAM, special and general purpose register arrays, on
chip ROM/FLASH memory for program storage, timer and interrupt
control units and dedicated I/O ports.

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 34

 Microprocessor vs. Microcontroller
(continued)
Microprocessor Microcontroller
A silicon chip representing a central processing unit (CPU), which is A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that contains a CPU,
capable of performing arithmetic as well as logical operations scratchpad RAM, special and general purpose register arrays, on
according to a pre-defined set of instructions chip ROM/ FLASH memory for program storage, timer and
interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports

It is a dependent unit. It requires the combination of other chips like It is a self-contained unit and it doesn't require external interrupt
timers, program and data memory chips, interrupt controllers, etc. controller, timer, UART, etc. for its functioning
for functioning
Most of the time, general purpose in design and operation Mostly application-oriented or domain-specific
Doesn't contain a built in I/O port. The I/O port functionality needs Most of the processors contain multiple built-in I/O ports which
to be implemented with the help of external programmable can be operated as a single 8 or 16 or 32 bit port or as individual
peripheral interface chips like 8255 port pins
Targeted for high end market where performance is important Targeted for embedded market where performance is not so
critical
Limited power saving options compared to microcontrollers Includes lot of power saving features

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 35

Microprocessor vs. Microcontroller
(continued)

Microprocessor-based system Microcontroller

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 36

 RISC vs. CISC
•Processors/Controllers
RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computing.
• All RISC processors/controllers possess lesser number of instructions,
typically in the range of 30 to 40.
• E.g.: Atmel AVR microcontroller – its instruction set contains only 32
instructions.
• CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computing.
• The instruction set is complex and instructions are high in number.
• E.g.: 8051 microcontroller – its instruction set contains 255
instructions.

Hariprasad T L, Dept. of ECE, CITECH 37

RISC CISC

Lesser number of instructions Greater number of instructions

Instruction pipelining and increased execution speed Generally no instruction pipelining feature

Orthogonal instruction set (Allows each instruction to operate on Non-orthogonal instruction set (All instructions are not allowed to
any register and use any addressing mode) operate on any register and use any addressing mode. It is
instruction-specific)
Operations are performed on registers only, the only memory Operations are performed on registers or memory depending on the
operations are load and store instruction

A large number of registers are available Limited number of general purpose registers

Programmer needs to write more code to execute a task since the Instructions are like macros in C language. A programmer can achieve
instructions are simpler ones the desired functionality with a single instruction which in turn
provides the effect of using more simpler single instructions in RISC

Single, fixed length instructions Variable length instructions

Less silicon usage and pin count More silicon usage since more additional decoder logic is required
to implement the complex instruction decoding

With Harvard Architecture Can be Harvard or Von-Neumann Architecture

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 38

Harvard vs. Von-Neumann
Processor/ControIIer Architecture
• Von-Neumann Architecture
• Microprocessors/controllers based on the Von-Neumann architecture
share a single common bus for fetching both instructions and data.
• Program instructions and data are stored in a common main memory.
• They first fetch an instruction and then fetch the data to support the
instruction from code memory.
• The two separate fetches slows down the controller's operation.
• Von-Neumann architecture is also referred as Princeton architecture,
since it was developed by the Princeton University.

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 39

Harvard vs. Von-Neumann
Processor/ControIIer Architecture (continued)
• Harvard Architecture
• Microprocessors/controllers based on the Harvard architecture will
have separate data bus and instruction bus.
• This allows the data transfer and program fetching to occur simultaneously on
both buses.
• The data memory can be read and written while the program memory
is being accessed.
• These separated data memory and code memory buses allow one
instruction to execute while the next instruction is fetched ("pre-
fetching").
• The pre-fetch theoretically allows much faster execution than Von-Neumann
architecture.
Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 40
Harvard vs. Von-Neumann
Processor/ControIIer Architecture (continued)
Harvard Architecture Von-Neumann Architecture
Separate buses for instruction and data fetching Single shared bus for instruction and data fetching
Easier to pipeline, so high performance can be Low performance compared to Harvard
achieved architecture
Comparatively high cost Cheaper
No memory alignment problems Allows self modifying codes
Since data memory and program memory are Since data memory and program memory are
stored physically in different locations, no chances stored physically in the same chip, chances for
for accidental corruption of program memory accidental corruption of program memory

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 41

Sensors and Actuators

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 42

 Sensors and
•Actuators
An embedded system is in constant interaction with the real world
and the controlling/monitoring functions executed by the embedded
system is achieved in accordance with the changes happening to the
real world.
• The changes in system environment or variables are detected by the
sensors connected to the input port of the embedded system.
• If the embedded system is designed for any controlling purpose, the
system will produce some changes in the controlling variable to bring
the controlled variable to the desired value.
• It is achieved through an actuator connected to the output port of the
embedded system.

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 43

 Sensors and Actuators
•(continued)
A sensor is a transducer device that converts energy from one form
to another for any measurement or control purpose.
• E.g.: Temperature sensor, magnetic hall effect sensor, humidity sensor,
etc.
• An actuator is a form of transducer device (mechanical or electrical)
which converts signals to corresponding physical action (motion).
• Actuator acts as an output device.
• E.g.: Stepper motor

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 44

 Transducer
•sTransducers are devices that convert energy in the form of
sound, light, heat, etc., into an equivalent electrical signal,
or vice versa.
• For example, a loudspeaker is a transducer that converts low-
frequency electric current into audible sounds.
• A microphone, on the other hand, is a transducer that performs
the reverse function, i.e. that of converting sound pressure
variations into voltage or current.
• Loudspeakers and microphones can thus be considered as
complementary transducers.
Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 45
 Transducers
•(continued)
Transducers may be used both as inputs to electronic
circuits and outputs from them.
• For example, a loudspeaker is an output transducer designed
for use in conjunction with an audio system.
• A microphone is an input transducer designed for use with a
recording or sound reinforcing system.

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 46

 Sensor
•sA sensor is a special kind of transducer that is used to generate
an input signal to a measurement, instrumentation or control
system.
• The signal produced by a sensor is an electrical analogy of a
physical quantity, such as distance, velocity, acceleration,
temperature, pressure, light level, etc.
• The signals returned from a sensor, together with control inputs
from the user or controller (as appropriate) will subsequently be
used to determine the output from the system.
• The choice of sensor is governed by a number of factors including
accuracy, resolution, cost and physical size.
Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 47
 Sensors
•(continued)
Sensors can be categorized as either active or passive.
• An active sensor generates a current or voltage output.
• A passive transducer requires a source of current or voltage
and it modifies this in some way (e.g. by virtue of a change in
the sensor’s resistance).
• The result may still be a voltage or current but it is not generated by
the sensor on its own.

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 48

 Sensors
•(continued)
Sensors can also be classed as either digital or analogue.
• The output of a digital sensor can exist in only two discrete
states, either ‘on’ or ‘off’, ‘low’ or ‘high’, ‘logic 1’ or ‘logic
0’, etc.
• The output of an analogue sensor can take any one of an
infinite number of voltage or current levels. It is thus said to
be continuously variable.

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 49

 Actuator
•sAn actuator is a form of transducer device (mechanical or electrical)
which converts signals to corresponding physical action (motion).

Hariprasad T L,Dept. of ECE, CITECH 51