Research Methodology and IPR

MODULE 2
REVIEWING THE LITERATURE AND RESEARCH DESIGN
Chapter 1 : Reviewing the Literature
The Place Of The Literature
Review In Research

One of the essential preliminary tasks when you undertake a
research study is to go through the existing literature in order to
acquaint yourself with the available body of knowledge in your
area of interest.
Reviewing the literature can be time consuming, daunting
and frustrating, but it is also rewarding. The literature review
is an integral part of the research process and makes a
valuable contribution to almost every operational step.
In the initial stages of research, it helps you to establish
the theoretical roots of your study, clarify your ideas and
develop your research methodology.
Later in the process, the literature review serves to
enhance and consolidate your own knowledge base and
helps you to integrate your findings with the existing body
of knowledge.
Since an important responsibility in research is to compare
your findings with those of others, it is here that the
literature review plays an extremely important role.
The Place Of The Literature
Review In Research
In summary, a literature review has the following functions:
 It provides a theoretical background to your study.
 It helps you establish the links between what you are
proposing to examine and what has already been studied.
 It enables you to show how your findings have contributed to
the existing body of knowledge in your profession. It helps you
to integrate your research findings into the existing body of
knowledge.
The Place Of The Literature
Review In Research
In relation to your own study, the literature review can help in four
ways.
It can:
1. bring clarity and focus to your research problem.
2. improve your research methodology.
3. broaden your knowledge base in your research area.
4. contextualise your findings.
The Place Of The Literature
Review In Research
Bringing clarity and focus to your research problem:
The literature review involves a paradox. On the one hand, you cannot effectively undertake a
literature search without some idea of the problem you wish to investigate.
On the other hand, the literature review can play an extremely important role in shaping your
research problem because the process of reviewing the literature helps you to understand the
subject area better and thus helps you to conceptualise your research problem clearly and
precisely and makes it more relevant and pertinent to your field of enquiry.
When reviewing the literature, you learn what aspects of your subject area have been
examined by others, what they have found out about these aspects, what gaps they have
identified and what suggestions they have made for further research.
The Place Of The Literature
Review In Research
Improving your research methodology:
Going through the literature acquaints you with the methodologies that have been used by
others to find answers to research questions similar to the one you are investigating.
A literature review tells you if others have used procedures and methods similar to the ones
that you are proposing, which procedures and methods have worked well for them and what
problems they have faced with them.
By becoming aware of any problems and pitfalls, you will be better positioned to select a
methodology that is capable of providing valid answers to your research question. This will
increase your confidence in the methodology you plan to use and will equip you to defend its
use
The Place Of The Literature
Review In Research
Broadening your knowledge base in your research area:
The most important function of the literature review is to ensure you read widely around the
subject area in which you intend to conduct your research study.
It is important that you know what other researchers have found in regard to the same or
similar questions, what theories have been put forward and what gaps exist in the relevant
body of knowledge.
When you undertake a research project for a higher degree (e.g. an MA or a PhD) you are
expected to be an expert in your area of research. A thorough literature review helps you to
fulfil this expectation.
Another important reason for doing a literature review is that it helps you to understand how
the findings of your study fit into the existing body of knowledge
The Place Of The Literature
Review In Research
Enabling you to contextualise your findings
Obtaining answers to your research questions is comparatively easy: the difficult part is
examining how your findings fit into the existing body of knowledge.
How do answers to your research questions compare with what others have found? What
contribution have you been able to make to the existing body of knowledge?
How are your findings different from those of others? Undertaking a literature review will
enable you to compare your findings with those of others and answer these questions.
How to Review the Literature
There are four steps involved in conducting a literature review:
1. Searching for the existing literature in your area of study.
2. Reviewing the selected literature.
3. Developing a theoretical framework
4. Developing a conceptual framework.
How to Review the Literature
Searching for the existing literature:
To search effectively for the literature in your field of enquiry, it is imperative that you have at
least some idea of the broad subject area and of the problem you wish to investigate, in order
to set parameters for your search. Next, compile a bibliography for this broad area.
There are three sources that you can use to prepare a bibliography:
(a) books
(b) journals
(c) the Internet
How to Review the Literature
(a) Books:
Though books are a central part of any bibliography, they have their disadvantages as well as
advantages.
The main advantage is that the material published in books is usually important and of good
quality, and the findings are ‘integrated with other research to form a coherent body of
knowledge’.
The main disadvantage is that the material is not completely up to date, as it can take a few
years between the completion of a work and its publication in the form of a book.
The best way to search for a book is to look at your library catalogues. If you are not sure, ask
your librarian to help you find the best subject heading for your area. This can save you a lot
of time.
How to Review the Literature
Use the subject catalogue or keywords option to search for books in your area of interest.
Narrow the subject area searched by selecting the appropriate keywords.
Look through these titles carefully and identify the books you think are likely to be of interest
to you. If you think the titles seem appropriate to your topic, print them out (if this facility is
available), as this will save you time, or note them down on a piece of paper.
When you have selected 10–15 books that you think are appropriate for your topic, examine
the bibliography of each one. It will save time if you photocopy their bibliographies. Go
through these bibliographies carefully to identify the books common to several of them.
How to Review the Literature
If a book has been referenced by a number of authors, you should include it in your reading
list. Prepare a final list of books that you consider essential reading.
Having prepared your reading list, locate these books in your library or borrow them from
other sources. Examine their contents to double-check that they really are relevant to your
topic. If you find that a book is not relevant to your research, delete it from your reading list.
How to Review the Literature
(b) journals:
Journals provide you with the most up-to-date information, even though there is often a gap
of two to three years between the completion of a research project and its publication in a
journal.
You should select as many journals as you possibly can, though the number of journals
available depends upon the field of study – certain fields have more journals than others.
As with books, you need to prepare a list of the journals you want to examine for identifying
the literature relevant to your study.
How to Review the Literature
(b) journals:
This can be done in a number of ways. You can:
i) locate the hard copies of the journals that are appropriate to your study.
ii) look at citation or abstract indices to identify and/or read the abstracts of such articles.
iii) search electronic databases.
If you have been able to identify any useful journals and articles, prepare a list of those you
want to examine, by journal.
If you feel that a particular article is of interest to you, read its abstract. If you think you are
likely to use it, depending upon your financial resources, either photocopy it, or prepare a
summary and record its reference for later use.
How to Review the Literature
(b) journals:
There are several sources designed to make your search for journals easier and these can save
you enormous time.
They are:
indices of journals (e.g. Humanities Index).
abstracts of articles (e.g. ERIC).
citation indices (e.g. Social Sciences Citation Index).
Each of these indexing, abstracting and citation services is available in print, or accessible
through the Internet.
How to Review the Literature
(b) journals:
How to Review the Literature
(c) Internet:
In almost every academic discipline and professional field, the Internet has become an
important tool for finding published literature. Through an Internet search you can identify
published material in books, journals and other sources with immense ease and speed.
An Internet search is carried out through search engines, of which there are many, though the
most commonly used are Google and Yahoo. Searching through the Internet is very similar to
the search for books and articles in a library using an electronic catalogue, as it is based on the
use of keywords.
An Internet search basically identifies all material in the database of a search engine that
contains the keywords you specify, either individually or in combination.
 How to Review the Literature
Reviewing the selected literature:
Now that you have identified several books and articles as useful, the next step is to start reading
them critically to pull together themes and issues that are of relevance to your study.
Unless you have a theoretical framework of themes in mind to start with, use separate sheets of
paper for each theme or issue you identify as you go through selected books and articles.
While going through the literature you should carefully and critically examine it with respect to
the following aspects:
i) Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework has been confirmed
beyond doubt.
ii) Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the methodologies
adopted (study design, sample size and its characteristics, measurement procedures, etc.) and
the criticisms of them.
How to Review the Literature
Reviewing the selected literature:
iii) Ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is known – the gaps that exist in the body of
knowledge.
iv) Examine to what extent the findings can be generalised to other situations.
v) Notice where there are significant differences of opinion among researchers and give your
opinion about the validity of these differences
How to Review the Literature
Developing a theoretical framework
The author recently examined, as part of an evaluation study, the extent of practice of the
concept of ‘community responsiveness’ in the delivery of health services in Western Australia
by health service providers.
Before evaluating the extent of its use, pertinent literature relating to ‘community
responsiveness in health’ was identified and reviewed. Through this review, many themes
emerged, which became the basis of developing the theoretical framework for the study.
How to Review the Literature
Out of all of this, the following themes were selected to construct the theoretical framework for
the evaluation study:
i)Community responsiveness: what does it mean?
ii)The extent of use in health planning?
iii)Strategies developed to achieve community responsiveness.
iv) Difficulties in implementing community responsiveness.
v) Indicators of success or failure
Once you develop a rough framework, slot the findings from the material so far reviewed into
these themes, using a separate sheet of paper for each theme of the framework so far developed.
As you read further, go on slotting the information where it logically belongs under the themes so
far developed. Keep in mind that you may need to add more themes as you go along.
How to Review the Literature
Developing a conceptual framework
The conceptual framework is the basis of your research problem. It stems from the theoretical
framework and usually focuses on the section(s) which become the basis of your study.
Whereas the theoretical framework consists of the theories or issues in which your study is
embedded, the conceptual framework describes the aspects you selected from the theoretical
framework to become the basis of your enquiry.
For example : The conceptual framework is focused on indicators to measure the success or
failure of the strategies to enhance community responsiveness [the example used in
theoretical framework] .
Hence the conceptual framework grows out of the theoretical framework and relates to the
specific research problem
Writing about the literature
reviewed
Now, all that remains to be done is to write about the literature you have reviewed. As
mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, two of the broad functions of a literature review
are
(1) to provide a theoretical background to your study and
(2) to enable you to contextualise your findings in relation to the existing body of knowledge in
addition to refining your methodology.
The content of your literature review should reflect these two purposes.
In order to fulfil the first purpose, you should identify and describe various theories relevant to
your field; and specify gaps in existing knowledge in the area, recent advances in the area of
study, current trends and so on.
The second broad function of the literature review – contextualising the findings of your study
requires you to compare very systematically your findings with those made by others.
Chapter 2 : Research Design
Meaning Of Research Design
 The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the
preparation of the design of the research project, popularly known as the “research design”.
Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a
research study constitute a research design.
 “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”
In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it
constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.
As such the design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the
hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data.
Meaning Of Research Design
 More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:
(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analysed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?
 Meaning Of Research Design
One may split the overall research design into the following parts:
(a) The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for
the given study.
(b) The observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations are
to be made.
(c) The statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed
(d) The operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
Meaning Of Research Design
From what has been stated above, we can state the important features of a research design as
under:
(i) It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research
problem.
(ii) It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analysing the data.
(iii) It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two
constraints.
Need For Research Design
 Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research
operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information
with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
 Just as for better, economical and attractive construction of a house, we need a blueprint (or
what is commonly called the map of the house) well thought out and prepared by an expert
architect, similarly we need a research design or a plan in advance of data collection and
analysis for our research project.
Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the
relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of
the research and the availability of staff, time and money. Preparation of the research design
should be done with great care as any error in it may upset the entire project.
Features Of a Good Design
 A good design is often characterised by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient,
economical and so on. Generally, the design which minimises bias and maximises the
reliability of the data collected and analysed is considered a good design.
 The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design in
many investigations.
 Similarly, a design which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for
considering many different aspects of a problem is considered most appropriate and efficient
design in respect of many research problems.
 Features Of a Good Design
A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the
consideration of the following factors:
(i) The means of obtaining information.
(ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any.
(iii) The objective of the problem to be studied.
(iv) The nature of the problem to be studied.
(v) The availability of time and money for the research work.
Important Concepts Relating To
Research Design
1. Dependent and independent variables.
2. Extraneous variable.
3. Control.
4. Confounded relationship.
5. Research hypothesis.
6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research.
7. Experimental and control groups.
8. Treatments.
9. Experiment.
10. Experimental unit(s).
A concept which can take on different quantitative values is
called a variable.
As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all examples
of variables.
Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values
even in decimal points are called ‘continuous variables’.*

But all variables are not continuous.

If they can only be expressed in integer values, they are non-
continuous variables or in statistical language ‘discrete
variables’.** Age is an example of continuous variable, but the
number of children is an example of non-continuous variable .
If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the
other variable, it is termed as a dependent variable,

and the variable that is antecedent to the dependent

variable is termed as an independent variable.
The following research questions can be used to identify the
dependent variable:
Is thi
s variable calculated as an outcome of the study?
Is this variable dependent on another variable in the
experimental study?
Is this variable calculated only after other variables are
changed?
 if we say that height depends upon age, then height is
a dependent variable and age is an independent
variable.
The following research questions can be used to identify the
independent variable:
1. Is this variable controlled or varied as a subject grouping
method?
2. Does this variable come before the other variable in time?
3. Is this variable used to study the effect of another variable?
an extraneous variable is any
external factor that can interfere
with the relationship between the
independent variable (IV) and the
dependent variable (DV).
While extraneous variables are not
the primary focus of the study, they
can distort results by introducing
bias or noise.
Extraneous variable
Extraneous variables are factors in a study that aren't the
main focus of the research but can still influence the results.
Think of them as the background noise in an experiment
– they're not what you're trying to listen to, but they can
definitely affect what you hear.
Example for extraneous
variables
Medical Research: In a drug trial for a new pain medication,
potential extraneous variables might be:
◦ Patients' diet and exercise habits
◦ Their stress levels
◦ Other medications they're taking
Educational Research:

When studying the impact of a new teaching method on

test scores, watch out for:
◦ Students' prior knowledge of the subject
◦ The teacher's enthusiasm for the new method
◦ Classroom temperature or lighting conditions
Important Concepts Relating To
Research Design
2. Extraneous variable - Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the
study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables.
 For example, if you're testing the effect of a teaching method on student performance,
extraneous variables might include things like student’s prior knowledge, the classroom
environment, or even the time of day when the test is conducted.
Controlling for these variables is crucial to ensure that the results accurately reflect the effect
of the teaching method itself.
In research, controlling or eliminating extraneous variables is crucial. If left unchecked, these
variables can interfere with the relationship between your independent and dependent
variables, leading to skewed results.
 Control
One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize
the influence or effect of extraneous variable(s).

The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the study

minimizing the effects of extraneous independent variables.

In experimental researches, the term ‘control’ is used to refer to

restrain experimental conditions.
Control variable
A control variable is a factor in an experiment that remains
constant to ensure that the effects of the independent variable
on the dependent variable are isolated.
It's essential to ensure control variables remain unaltered
throughout the experiment to achieve valid results.
readymade films and lectures are examples of independent
variables,

whereas behavioural changes, occurring as a result of the

environmental manipulations, are examples of dependent
variables.
Important Concepts Relating To
Research Design
1. Dependent and independent variables - A concept which can take on different quantitative
values is called a variable. As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all examples of
variables.
 Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in decimal points are
called ‘continuous variables. But all variables are not continuous.
Age is an example of continuous variable, but the number of children is an example of non-
continuous variable.
If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a
dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed
as an independent variable.
 For instance, if we say that height depends upon gender, then height is a dependent variable
and gender is an independent variable.
Important Concepts Relating To
Research Design
3. Control - One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimise the
influence or effect of extraneous variable(s).
The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the study minimising the effects of
extraneous independent variables. In experimental researches, the term ‘control’ is used to
refer to restrain experimental conditions.

4. Confounded relationship - When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is
said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
 4. Confounded relationship
When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and
independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous
variable(s).
Important Concepts Relating To
Research Design
5. Research hypothesis - When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested by
scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis.
The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a
dependent variable. Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent
and one dependent variable.
Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified or the relationships that are
assumed but not to be tested, are not termed research hypotheses
Experimental
The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some
research problem, is known as an experiment.

For example, we can conduct an experiment to

examine the usefulness of a certain newly developed drug. Experiments can be of two types viz.,
absolute experiment and comparative experiment. If we want to determine the impact of a fertilizer
on the yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute experiment; but if we want to determine the impact of
one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other fertilizer, our experiment then will be termed
as a comparative experiment.
Important Concepts Relating To
Research Design
6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research - When the purpose of
research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing research.
It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design. Research in which the
independent variable is manipulated is termed ‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’ and
a research in which an independent variable is not manipulated is called ‘non-experimental
hypothesis-testing research’.
For example :
•Experimental: Testing the effectiveness of a new drug by giving it to one group and a placebo
to another.
•Non-Experimental: Surveying people about their dietary habits and health outcomes to find
correlations.
Examples of experimental research are laboratory experiments that involve mixing
different chemical elements together to see the effect of one element on the other

non-experimental research examples are investigations into the characteristics of

different chemical elements.
Important Concepts Relating To
Research Design
7. Experimental and control groups - In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a
group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a ‘control group’, but when the group is
exposed to some novel or special condition, it is termed an ‘experimental group’.
For example, if we are testing a new drug, the experimental group would receive the drug,
while the control group might receive a placebo. By comparing the outcomes of the two
groups, researchers can determine if the drug is effective.
It is possible to design studies which include only experimental groups or studies which
include both experimental and control groups.
Important Concepts Relating To
Research Design
8. Treatments - The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put
are usually referred to as ‘treatments.
In the example of testing the impact of new drug, the patients given a new drug and the
patients given placebo becomes the two treatments.
For example: if we want to determine through an experiment the comparative impact of three
varieties of fertilizers on the yield of wheat, in that case the three varieties of fertilizers will be
treated as three treatments.
Important Concepts Relating To
Research Design
9. Experiment
The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some research
problem, is known as an experiment.
Experiments can be of two types viz., absolute experiment and comparative experiment. If we
want to determine the impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute
experiment.
but if we want to determine the impact of one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some
other fertilizer, our experiment then will be termed as a comparative experiment.
10. Experimental unit(s)
The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments are used, are known as
experimental units. Such experimental units must be selected (defined) very carefully.
Different Research Designs
 Different research designs can be conveniently described if we categorize them as:
(1) research design in case of exploratory research studies.
(2) research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies, and
(3) research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies
Exploratory research
studies.

Exploratory research is an approach used to investigate a

research problem that is not clearly defined.

It aims to gain insights, identify patterns, and establish a

foundational understanding of a topic.
Exploratory research is often used when the issue you’re
studying is new or when the data collection process is
challenging for some reason.
Example-1
An advertising company got an account for a new coffee containing
chicory, the company started the investigation process with exploratory
research in order to identify the situation.

The researchers found that virtually no one had heard about chicory. It
wasn’t being used, and no-one seemed to know how to put it to use.

This resulted in the hypothesis that the advertising could depict the
chicory ingredient in whatever way the customer desired.
Example-2
The favourite crime investigation TV programs (e.g., Crime Patrol, Arjun, Savdhaan India, etc)
give a pretty good example of the research design.

These shows typically start with a crime that needs to be investigated.

The initial step is to look for hints which can help establish what has happened (exploratory).
The clues found in the exploratory phase of the research usually point in the direction of a
specific hypothesis or explanation of the events which happened, and investigators start
focusing their efforts in this direction, performing interviews with witnesses and suspects
(descriptive).
Exploratory Research Example on Product Research
Organizations conduct two major research when working on a new product or service. The first one is
conducted before developing the product while the second one is conducted after product development.
Our focus will be on the exploratory research conducted after product development. For tech products, it
is called the beta testing stage of product development.
If a new feature is added to an existing app, for example, product researchers will want to investigate
whether the feature will be well received among the users. If the feature added to the app is something
that is already in existence, then the research is not exploratory.
For example, if telegram adds a status feature to its app, the beta research stage of the app is not
exploratory. This is because this feature is something that is already in existence, and they can easily get
enough information from WhatsApp.
However, if it is a new feature like the Snapchat filters when they just came out, the research is
explanatory. In this case, exploratory research is carried out using a focus group of beta testers.
Different Research Designs
1. Research design In case of exploratory research studies: Exploratory research studies are
also termed as formulative research studies.
The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise
investigation or of developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view.
Generally, the following three methods in the context of research design for such studies are
talked about:
(a) the survey of concerning literature;
(b) the experience survey and
(c) the analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples
Different Research Designs
The survey of concerning literature happens to be the most simple and fruitful method of
formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis.
Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated as a
basis for further research. It may also be considered whether the already stated hypotheses
suggest new hypothesis.
In this way the researcher should review and build upon the work already done by others, but
in cases where hypotheses have not yet been formulated, his task is to review the available
material for deriving the relevant hypotheses from it.
He should also make an attempt to apply concepts and theories developed in different
research contexts to the area in which he is himself working.
Sometimes the works of creative writers also provide a fertile ground for hypothesis
formulation and as such may be looked into by the researcher.
Different Research Designs
The Experience Survey - Experience survey means the survey of people who have had
practical experience with the problem to be studied.
For such a survey people who are competent and can contribute new ideas may be carefully
selected as respondents to ensure a representation of different types of experience.
The respondents so selected may then be interviewed by the investigator.

The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic questioning of
informants.
Thus, an experience survey may enable the researcher to define the problem more concisely
and help in the formulation of the research hypothesis.
Different Research Designs
Analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples is also a fruitful method for suggesting hypotheses
for research.
It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little experience to serve as a guide.
For this purpose, the existing records, if any, may be examined, the unstructured interviewing
may take place, or some other approach may be adopted.
One can mention few examples of ‘insight-stimulating’ cases such as the reactions of
strangers, the reactions of marginal individuals, the study of individuals who are in transition
from one stage to another, the reactions of individuals from different social strata and the like.
Different Research Designs
2. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies:
The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the
following:
(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being made?)
(b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be
adopted?)
(c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period
should the data be related?)
(e) Processing and analysing the data.
(f) Reporting the findings.
2. Research design in case of descriptive and
diagnostic research studies:
Descriptive research design concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular
individual, or of a group,
Different Research Designs
In a descriptive/diagnostic study the first step is to specify the objectives with sufficient
precision to ensure that the data collected are relevant.
If this is not done carefully, the study may not provide the desired information. Then comes
the question of selecting the methods by which the data are to be obtained.
In other words, techniques for collecting the information must be devised. Several methods
(viz., observation, questionnaires, interviewing, examination of records, etc.).
Interviewers must be instructed not to express their own opinion; observers must be trained
so that they uniformly record a given item of behaviour.
It is always desirable to pre test the data collection instruments before they are finally used
for the study purposes. In other words, we can say that “structured instruments” are used in
such studies.
Different Research Designs
In most of the descriptive/diagnostic studies the researcher takes out sample(s) and then wishes
to make statements about the population on the basis of the sample analysis or analyses. More
often than not, sample has to be designed.
The data collected must be processed and analysed. This includes steps like coding the interview
replies, observations, tabulating the data and performing several statistical computations.
To the extent possible, the processing and analysing procedure should be planned in detail
before actual work is started. This will prove economical in the sense that the researcher may
avoid unnecessary labour.
Last of all comes the question of reporting the findings. This is the task of communicating the
findings to others and the researcher must do it in an efficient manner. The layout of the report
needs to be well planned so that all things relating to the research study may be well presented
in simple and effective style.
Different Research Designs
Different Research Designs
3. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies: Hypothesis-testing research
studies (generally known as experimental studies) are those where the researcher tests the
hypotheses of causal relationships between variables. Such studies require procedures that will
not only reduce bias and increase reliability.
Professor R.A. Fisher’s name is associated with experimental designs. Beginning of such designs
was made by him when he was working at Rothamsted Experimental Station (Centre for
Agricultural Research in England).
As such the study of experimental designs has its origin in agricultural research. Professor Fisher
found that by dividing agricultural fields or plots into different blocks and then by conducting
experiments in each of these blocks, whatever information is collected and inferences drawn
from them, happens to be more reliable.
This fact inspired him to develop certain experimental designs for testing hypotheses concerning
scientific investigations.
Basic Principles Of Experimental
Designs
Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs:
(1) the Principle of Replication.
(2) the Principle of Randomization
(3) Principle of Local Control
Principle of Replication
The experiment should be reaped more than once.
each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one.
By doing so, the statistical accuracy of the experiments is
increased.
For example, suppose we are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice.
For this purpose, we may divide the field into two parts and grow one
variety in one part and the other variety in the other part.
We can then compare the yield of the two parts and draw conclusion on
that basis.
Basic Principles Of Experimental
Designs
(1) The Principle of Replication.
According to the Principle of Replication, the experiment should be repeated more than once.
Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so the
statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased.
For example, suppose we are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose,
we may divide the field into two parts and grow one variety in one part and the other variety
in the other part.
We can then compare the yield of the two parts and draw conclusion on that basis.
Basic Principles Of Experimental
Designs
But if we are to apply the principle of replication to this experiment, then we first divide the
field into several parts, grow one variety in half of these parts and the other variety in the
remaining parts.
We can then collect the data of yield of the two varieties and draw conclusion by comparing
the same. The result so obtained will be more reliable in comparison to the conclusion we
draw without applying the principle of replication.
The entire experiment can even be repeated several times for better results. Conceptually
replication does not present any difficulty, but computationally it does.
Basic Principles Of Experimental
Designs
(2) The Principle of Randomization.
The Principle of Randomization provides protection, when we conduct an experiment, against
the effect of extraneous factors by randomization.
For instance, if we grow one variety of rice, say, in the first half of the parts of a field and the
other variety is grown in the other half, then it is just possible that the soil fertility may be
different in the first half in comparison to the other half.
If this is so, our results would not be realistic. In such a situation, we may assign the variety of
rice to be grown in different parts of the field on the basis of some random sampling
technique i.e., we may apply randomization principle and protect ourselves against the effects
of the extraneous factors (soil fertility differences in the given case)
Basic Principles Of Experimental
Designs
(3) The Principle of Local Control : The Principle of Local Control is one of the three
fundamental principles of experimental design, alongside randomization and replication. It
focuses on minimizing the effects of extraneous variables that could influence the results of
an experiment.
Example:
i) Blocking:
•The researcher divides the field into several blocks based on soil quality. Each block contains
plots that have similar soil properties.
•For instance, the field might be divided into blocks A, B, and C, each representing a different
soil quality (high, medium, and low fertility).
Basic Principles Of Experimental
Designs
ii) Randomization within Blocks:
•Within each block, the researcher randomly assigns the three different fertilizers to the plots.
•This ensures that the effect of soil quality is controlled within each block, and the influence of
the fertilizers can be isolated.
Example Design:
•Block A (High Fertility)
• Plot 1: Fertilizer X
• Plot 2: Fertilizer Y
• Plot 3: Fertilizer Z
Basic Principles Of Experimental
Designs
•Block B (Medium Fertility):
• Plot 1: Fertilizer X
• Plot 2: Fertilizer Y
• Plot 3: Fertilizer Z

•Block C (Low Fertility):

• Plot 1: Fertilizer X
• Plot 2: Fertilizer Y
• Plot 3: Fertilizer Z
Important Experimental Designs
Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of an experiment and as such there
are several experimental designs.
We can classify experimental designs into two broad categories, viz.,
Informal experimental designs
Formal experimental designs.
Informal experimental designs are those designs that normally use a less sophisticated form of
analysis based on differences in magnitudes, whereas formal experimental designs offer
relatively more control and use precise statistical procedures for analysis.
Important Experimental Designs
(a) Informal experimental designs:
(i) Before-and-after without control design.
(ii) After-only with control design.
(iii) Before-and-after with control design.
(b) Formal experimental designs:
(i) Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).
(ii) Randomized block design (R.B. Design).
(iii) Latin square design (L.S. Design).
(iv) Factorial designs
Important Experimental Designs
(a) Informal Experimental Designs:
1. Before-and-after without control design.
In such a design a single test group or area is selected and the dependent variable is measured
before the introduction of the treatment.
The treatment is then introduced and the dependent variable is measured again after the
treatment has been introduced.
The effect of the treatment would be equal to the level of the phenomenon after the
treatment minus the level of the phenomenon before the treatment. The design can be
represented thus:
Important Experimental Designs
2. After-only with control design: In this design two groups or areas (test area and control
area) are selected and the treatment is introduced into the test area only.
The dependent variable is then measured in both the areas at the same time. Treatment
impact is assessed by subtracting the value of the dependent variable in the control area from
its value in the test area. This can be exhibited in the following form:
Important Experimental Designs
3. Before-and-after with control design:
In this design two areas are selected and the dependent variable is measured in both the
areas for an identical time-period before the treatment.
The treatment is then introduced into the test area only, and the dependent variable is
measured in both for an identical time-period after the introduction of the treatment.
The treatment effect is determined by subtracting the change in the dependent variable in the
control area from the change in the dependent variable in test area.
Important Experimental Designs
(b) Formal Experimental Design:
1. Completely randomized design (C.R. design): Involves only two principles viz., the principle
of replication and the principle of randomization of experimental designs.
It is the simplest possible design and its procedure of analysis is also easier. The essential
characteristic of the design is that subjects are randomly assigned to experimental treatments
(or vice-versa).
For instance, if we have 10 subjects and if we wish to test 5 under treatment A and 5 under
treatment B, the randomization process gives every possible group of 5 subjects selected from
a set of 10 an equal opportunity of being assigned to treatment A and treatment B.
We can present a brief description of the two forms of such a design:
(i) Two-group simple randomized design.
(ii) Random replications design.
Important Experimental Designs
i) Two-group simple randomized design - In a two-group simple randomized design, first of all
the population is defined and then from the population a sample is selected randomly.
Further, requirement of this design is that items, after being selected randomly from the
population, be randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups (Such random
assignment of items to two groups is technically described as principle of randomization).
Since in the sample randomized design the elements constituting the sample are randomly
drawn from the same population and randomly assigned to the experimental and control
groups, it becomes possible to draw conclusions on the basis of samples applicable for the
population.
The two groups (experimental and control groups) of such a design are given different
treatments of the independent variable.
The limitation of this is that is doesn't control the extraneous variables.
Important Experimental Designs
Important Experimental Designs
ii) Random replications design - The limitation of the two-group randomized design is usually
eliminated within the random replications design.
In the two-group simple randomized design, the extraneous variable was not controlled. But
in a random replications design, the effect of such differences are minimised (or reduced) by
providing a number of repetitions for each treatment. Each repetition is technically called a
‘replication’.
Random replication design serves two purposes viz., it provides controls for the differential
effects of the extraneous independent variables and secondly, it randomizes any individual
differences among those conducting the treatments.
Diagrammatically we can illustrate the random replications design thus: (Fig. 3.5).
Does different teaching method affect students’ math performance?
Treatments:
T1: Lecture method
T2: Activity-based method
T3: Online teaching method
Situation:
Due to class schedule and student availability, each method gets different numbers of students,
randomly assigned.
Random Assignment of Replications:
Treatment Students (Replications) Scores

T1 (Lecture) 5 students 55, 60, 58, 62, 57

T2 (Activity-based) 7 students 70, 72, 75, 68, 74, 73, 71

T3 (Online method) 4 students 65, 63, 68, 62

Here, the number of replications:
•T1 = 5
•T2 = 7
•T3 = 4
This inequality of replications is allowed and intentional in a Random Replications Design.

Why is it used?
•When it is difficult to get equal samples for all treatments
•When experiments depend on natural or classroom availability
•When resources differ for each treatment
Important Experimental Designs
Important Experimental Designs
From the diagram it is clear that there are two populations in the replication design. The
sample is taken randomly from the population available for study and is randomly assigned to,
say, four experimental and four control groups.
Similarly, sample is taken randomly from the population available to conduct experiments
(because of the eight groups eight such individuals be selected) and the eight individuals so
selected should be randomly assigned to the eight groups.
Generally, equal number of items are put in each group so that the size of the group is not
likely to affect the result of the study. Variables relating to both population characteristics are
assumed to be randomly distributed among the two groups.
Thus, this random replication design is, in fact, an extension of the two-group simple
randomized design
Important Experimental Designs
2) Randomized block design (R.B. design) - is an improvement over the C.R. design. In the R.B.
design the principle of local control can be applied along with the other two principles of
experimental designs.
In the R.B. design, subjects are first divided into groups, known as blocks. The number of
subjects in a given block would be equal to the number of treatments and one subject in each
block would be randomly assigned to each treatment.
Let us illustrate the R.B. design with the help of an example. Suppose four different forms of a
standardized test in statistics were given to each of five students (selected one from each of
the five I.Q. blocks) and following are the scores which they obtained.
Example: Effect of Teaching Methods on Students’ Test Scores
A researcher wants to compare three teaching methods:
T1 – Lecture
T2 – Group Discussion
T3 – Activity-based Learning
However, students differ in their ability level, which may influence test scores.
To remove this variation, students are grouped (blocked) based on ability level.
Blocking Factor:
Block 1 – Weak students
Block 2 – Average students
Block 3 – Strong students
Each block contains students with similar ability.
Assignment (Random within each block)
Block (Ability Level) T1 T2 T3
Weak Random 5 students Random 5 Random 5
Average Random 5 Random 5 Random 5
Strong Random 5 Random 5 Random 5

Randomization happens inside each block, not across all students.

Working of Rb
Form blocks based on ability.

Randomly assign treatments inside each block

.
Conduct teaching sessions.

Compare test scores using RBD

Important Experimental Designs
Important Experimental Designs
3) Latin square design (L.S. design) - is an experimental design very frequently used in
agricultural research. The conditions under which agricultural investigations are carried out
are different from those in other studies for nature plays an important role in agriculture.
For instance, an experiment has to be made through which the effects of five different
varieties of fertilizers on the yield of a certain crop, say wheat, it to be judged.
In such a case the varying fertility of the soil in different blocks in which the experiment has to
be performed must be taken into consideration; otherwise, the results obtained may not be
very dependable because the output happens to be the effect not only of fertilizers, but it
may also be the effect of fertility of soil.
Similarly, there may be impact of varying seeds on the yield. To overcome such difficulties, the
L.S. design is used when there are two major extraneous factors such as the varying soil
fertility and varying seeds.
A teacher wants to test three teaching methods:
A = Lecture
B = Group Discussion
C = Digital Learning
But performance may also depend on:
Rows = Class Sections (Section 1, 2, 3)
Columns = Time Slots (Morning, Afternoon, Evening)
And to control both section differences and time differences.
So uses a 3×3 Latin Square Design.
Sections (Rows) Morning Afternoon Evening
Section 1 A B C
Section 2Each teaching
B methodC appears onceA in each row
Section 3(each section).
C A B
Each teaching method appears once in each column
(each time slot)

This controls both:

Section effect (students in different classes)

Time effect (morning/evening performance differences)

Important Experimental Designs
 Important Experimental Designs
 Factorial designs
Factorial designs are used in experiments where the effects of varying more than one factor are
to be determined. They are especially important in several economic and social phenomena
where usually a large number of factors affect a particular problem.
Factorial designs can be of two types:
(i) Simple factorial designs.
(ii) Complex factorial designs.
Factor = Independent variable that you change in the experiment.
Examples:
Teaching Method (Lecture vs. Interactive) → Factor
Fertilizer Type (F1, F2) → Factor
Temperature (20°C, 30°C, 40°C) → Factor

Each factor has levels:

Teaching Method → 2 levels
Temperature → 3 levels
Fertilizer Type → 2 levels
 Factor
A variable that the researcher deliberately manipulates to
study its effect on the outcome.
It is an independent variable with two or more levels
(categories or conditions).
Important Experimental Designs
(i) Simple Factorial designs: In case of simple factorial designs, we consider the effects of
varying two factors on the dependent variable, but when an experiment is done with more
than two factors, we use complex factorial designs.
Simple factorial design is also termed as a ‘two-factor-factorial design’, whereas complex
factorial design is known as ‘multifactor-factorial design.’ Simple factorial design may either
be a 2 × 2 simple factorial design, or it may be, say, 3 × 4 or 5 × 3 or the like type of simple
factorial design.
Simple Factorial Design Example (2 × 2 Design)
Research Scenario:
A teacher wants to know how Teaching Method and Study Material jointly affect student test
scores.
Factors (Independent Variables):
Teaching Method (Factor A)
◦ A1 = Lecture
◦ A2 = Interactive session

Study Material (Factor B)

◦ B1 = Textbook
◦ B2 = Video lesson

B1: Textbook B2: Video

A1: Lecture Group 1 Group 2
A2: Interactive Group 3 Group 4
This design allows the researcher to study:
Main effect of Teaching Method
Does Interactive teaching produce better scores than Lecture?
Main effect of Study Material
Are Videos more effective than Textbooks?

Interaction Effect
Does the effect of Teaching Method depend on the type of study
material?
(E.g., maybe Interactive + Video works best.)
Important Experimental Designs
In this design the extraneous variable to be controlled by homogeneity is called the control
variable and the independent variable, which is manipulated, is called the experimental
variable.

Then there are two treatments of the experimental variable and two levels of the control
variable. As such there are four cells into which the sample is divided.

The following examples make clear the interaction effect between treatments and levels. The
data obtained in case of two (2 × 2) simple factorial studies may be as given in Fig. 3.9.
Important Experimental Designs
Important Experimental Designs
All the above figures (the study I data and the study II data) represent the respective means.
Graphically, these can be represented as shown in Fig. 3.10.
Important Experimental Designs
(ii) Complex factorial designs:
Experiments with more than two factors at a time involve the use of complex factorial
designs. A design which considers three or more independent variables simultaneously is
called a complex factorial design.
In case of three factors with one experimental variable having two treatments and two control
variables, each one of which having two levels, the design used will be termed 2 × 2 × 2
complex factorial design which will contain a total of eight cells as shown below in Fig. 3.13.
Important Experimental Designs
Important Experimental Designs
From this design it is possible to determine the main effects for three variables i.e., one
experimental and two control variables.
The researcher can also determine the interactions between each possible pair of variables
(such interactions are called ‘First Order interactions’) and interaction between variable taken
in triplets (such interactions are called Second Order interactions).
In case of a 2 × 2 × 2 design, the further given first order interactions are possible:
Experimental variable with control variable 1 (or EV × CV 1);
Experimental variable with control variable 2 (or EV × CV 2);
Control variable 1 with control variable 2 (or CV1 × CV2);
Important Experimental Designs
Factorial designs are used mainly because of the two advantages.
(i) They provide equivalent accuracy (as happens in the case of experiments with only one
factor) with less labour and as such are a source of economy. Using factorial designs, we can
determine the main effects of two (in simple factorial design) or more (in case of complex
factorial design) factors (or variables) in one single experiment.
(ii) They permit various other comparisons of interest. For example, they give information
about such effects which cannot be obtained by treating one single factor at a time. The
determination of interaction effects is possible in case of factorial designs.
Thankyou