OSI
The Open Systems Interconnection not directly implemented in its
entirety in real-world networking
(OSI) model describes seven layers hardware or software. Instead,
specific protocols and technologies
that computer systems use to are often designed based on the
principles outlined in the OSI
communicate over a network. It was model
the first standard model for network
communications, adopted by all major
computer and telecommunication
companies in the early 1980s
OSI
Functions of the Physical Layer
• Bit Synchronization: clock.
• Bit Rate Control: the number of bits sent per second.
• Physical Topologies
• Transmission Mode: Simplex, Duplex
Functions of the Data Link Layer
• Framing
• Physical Addressing: physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or
receiver in the header of each frame.
• Error Control: detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
• Flow Control: amount of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
• Access Control: device has control over the channel at a given time.
Functions of the Network Layer
• Routing
• Logical Addressing
Functions of the Transport Layer
• Segmentation and Reassembly
• Service Point Addressing: port address
Functions of the Session Layer
• Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination
• Synchronization: identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly,
and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely, and data loss is avoided.
• Dialog Controller: communication with each other in half-duplex or full duplex.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
• Translation ASCII TO EXTENDED BINARY CODED DECIMAL
INTERCHANGE CODE
• Encryption/ Decryption
• Compression
Functions of the Application Layer
• Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): log on to a remote host.
• File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM)
• Mail Services
• Directory Services
Let’s look at it with an Example:
Luffy sends an e-mail to his friend Zoro.
￭ Step 1: Luffy interacts with e-mail application like Gmail, outlook, etc. Writes his email to send. (This
happens in Layer 7: Application layer)
￭ Step 2: Mail application prepares for data transmission like encrypting data and formatting it for
transmission. (This happens in Layer 6: Presentation Layer)
￭ Step 3: There is a connection established between the sender and receiver on the internet. (This
happens in Layer 5: Session Layer)
￭ Step 4: Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds sequence number and error-checking
information to maintain the reliability of the information. (This happens in Layer 4: Transport Layer)
￭ Step 5: Addressing of packets is done in order to find the best route for transfer. (This happens in
Layer 3: Network Layer)
￭ Step 6: Data packets are encapsulated into frames, then MAC address is added for local devices and
then it checks for error using error detection. (This happens in Layer 2: Data Link Layer)
￭ Step 7: Lastly Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/ optical signals over a physical network
medium like ethernet cable or WiFi.
After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Zoro, the process will reverse and decrypt the e-mail content. At
last, the email will be shown on Zoro’s email client.
Applications of OSI Model
Network Design and Implementation:
⚬Assists in designing and implementing network architectures and protocols by
breaking down complex communication processes into manageable layers.
Troubleshooting and Debugging:
⚬Provides a structured approach to diagnose and troubleshoot network issues
by isolating problems to specific layers.
Protocol Development:
⚬Guides the development of new network protocols and standards, ensuring
compatibility and integration with existing systems.
Educational Tool:
⚬Used as a teaching framework in networking and computer science to help
students understand network communication and protocol interactions.
Applications of OSI Model
Network Integration:
⚬Facilitates the integration of different network technologies and services, allowing
seamless communication across diverse systems.
Security:
⚬Assists in implementing security measures at various layers, such as encryption at the
Presentation layer and access control at the Data Link layer.
Performance Optimization:
⚬Helps in optimizing network performance by analyzing and addressing issues at
specific layers, such as improving data transfer rates at the Transport layer.
Protocol Mapping:
⚬Supports the mapping of real-world protocols to the OSI layers, aiding in the
understanding of their functions and interactions within the network.
tcp/ip
The TCP/IP model, also known as the
Internet Protocol Suite, is a conceptual
framework that standardizes the functions
of networking protocols and technologies
used to establish communication on the
Internet and private networks. It
comprises a set of interconnected
protocols that enable reliable and efficient
data transmission.
Layers of TCP/IP
1. Network Interface Layer (Link Layer):
• Corresponds to the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model.
• Deals with the physical transmission of data over a specific medium.
• Involves addressing at the hardware level, such as MAC (Media Access Control) addresses.
Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol).
2. Internet Layer:
• Equivalent to the Network Layer in the OSI model.
• Responsible for logical addressing and routing of data packets across different networks.
Key protocol: IP (Internet Protocol).
3. Transport Layer:
• Functions like the Transport Layer in the OSI model.
• Ensures end-to-end communication and data integrity.
Key protocols: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) for reliable, connection-oriented communication and UDP
(User Datagram Protocol) for connectionless communication.
4. Application Layer:
• Combines functionalities of the Session, Presentation, and Application layers in the OSI model.
• Facilitates user application interaction with the network.
Includes various application protocols like HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol),
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), and more.
• In the Transport Layer, the data unit will be called
as TCP Segment/ UDP Datagram; UDP- User
Datagram Protocol
• In the Network Layer, the data unit will be called as
IP Packet- IP Packet referring to the Data along
with the IP Address.
• In the Data Link layer, the data unit will be called as
Ethernet frame
• In the Physical layer, the data unit will be called as
bits or stream of bits.
⚬UDP is an alternative to TCP. Both TCP and UDP are
part of the protocol suite, but because of heavy
dependence on TCP, the model is known by the name
TCP/IP Model
⚬Why there is a heavy dependence on TCP?
⚬ Highly reliable whereas UDP is less reliable
comparatively. Highly reliable because TCP ensure
secure connections.
⚬For example, TCP usually comes into picture when
you are dealing with secured connections like transfer
of money digitally and also seeks for permission.
⚬And UDP is used wherein there is no secured
connection required, for example surfing on you tube.
⚬But TCP is slow when compared to UDP.
Applications of TCP/IP
Internet and Web Services
⚬ Web Browsing (HTTP/HTTPS)
￭ Fetches and displays web content
⚬ Email (SMTP, POP3, IMAP)
￭ Sending and receiving emails
File Transfer
⚬ File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
￭ Uploading and downloading files
⚬ Secure File Transfer (SFTP, SCP)
￭ Encrypted file transfer
Networking Services
⚬ Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
￭ Secure, encrypted connections over public networks
⚬ Voice over IP (VoIP)
￭ Transmits voice and video data
Applications of TCP/IP
Domain Name System (DNS)
⚬ Domain Name Resolution
￭ Translates domain names into IP addresses
Remote Access and Management
⚬ Remote Desktop Services
￭ Access and control computers remotely
⚬ Network Management
￭ Monitoring and managing network devices
Online Gaming
⚬ Multiplayer Gaming
￭ Communication between game clients and servers
Streaming Services
⚬ Media Streaming
￭ Streaming audio and video content
IoT (Internet of Things)
⚬ Smart Devices
￭ Connectivity for devices like thermostats, cameras, home assistants