Memory Management

Memory management
• We have seen how CPU can be shared by a set
of processes
– Improve system performance
– Process management
• Need to keep several process in memory
– Share memory
• Learn various techniques to manage memory
– Hardware dependent
 Memory management
What are we going to learn?
•Basic Memory Management: logical vs.
physical address space, protection, contiguous
memory allocation, paging, segmentation,
segmentation with paging.

•Virtual Memory: background, demand paging,

performance, page replacement, page
replacement algorithms (FCFS, LRU), allocation
of frames, thrashing.
 Background

• Program must be brought (from disk) into

memory
CPU
• Fetch-decode-execute cycle

• Memory unit only sees a stream of

addresses + read requests, or address + data
and write requests
• Sequence of memory addresses generated
by running program
 Logical vs. Physical Address Space
Logical address – generated by the CPU; also
referred to as virtual address CPU

Physical address – address seen by the memory

unit
• Logical address space is the set of all logical
addresses generated by a program
• Physical address space is the set of all
physical addresses generated by a program
 Background
Multiple processes resides in memory

• Protection of memory required to ensure

correct operation

1. Protect OS
2. Protect user processes
 Base and Limit Registers
• A pair of base and limit registers define
the logical address space
 Hardware Address Protection with Base and Limit Registers

• OS loads the base & limit reg.

• Privileged instruction
 Address Binding
• Process resides in main memory
• Associate each data element with memory address
• Further, addresses represented in different ways at
different stages of a program’s life
– Source code addresses usually symbolic
– Compiled code addresses bind to relocatable addresses
• i.e. “14 bytes from beginning of this module”
– Linker or loader will bind relocatable addresses to
absolute addresses
• i.e. 74014
Multistep Processing of a User
Program
 Binding of Instructions and Data to
Memory
• Address binding of instructions and data to memory
addresses can happen at three different stages
– Compile time: If memory location known a priori,
absolute code can be generated; must recompile code if
starting location changes
– Load time: Must generate relocatable code if memory
location is not known at compile time
– Execution time: If the process can be moved during its
execution from one memory segment to another
• Binding delayed until run time
• Need hardware support for address maps (e.g., base and limit
registers)
 Logical vs. Physical Address Space
Logical address – generated by the CPU; also referred to
as virtual address
CPU

Physical address – address seen by the memory unit

• Logical and physical addresses are the same in

compile-time and load-time address-binding
schemes;
• logical (virtual) and physical addresses differ in
execution-time address-binding scheme
• Logical address space is the set of all logical
addresses generated by a program
• Physical address space is the set of all physical
addresses generated by a program
 Memory-Management Unit (MMU)
• Hardware device that at run time maps virtual to physical
address

• Many methods possible

• To start, consider simple scheme where the value in the

relocation register is added to every address generated by a user
process at the time it is sent to memory
– relocation register
– MS-DOS on Intel 80x86 used 4 relocation registers

• The user program deals with logical addresses (0 to max); it

never sees the real physical addresses (R to R+max)
– Say the logical address 25
– Execution-time binding occurs when reference is made to location
in memory
– Logical address bound to physical addresses
Dynamic relocation using a
relocation register

14000

Relocatable
code
 Contiguous Allocation

Multiple processes resides in memory

 Contiguous Allocation

• Main memory usually divided into two

partitions:
– Resident operating system, usually held in low
memory
– User processes then held in high memory
– Each process contained in single contiguous
section of memory
 Contiguous Allocation (Cont.)
• Multiple-partition allocation
– Divide memory into several Fixed size partition
– Each partition stores one process
– Degree of multiprogramming limited by number of
partitions
– If a partition is free, load process from job queue
– MFT (IBM OS/360)
 Contiguous Allocation (Cont.)
• Multiple-partition allocation
– Variable partition scheme
– Hole – block of available memory; holes of various size are
scattered throughout memory
– Keeps a table of free memory
– When a process arrives, it is allocated memory from a hole large
enough to accommodate it
– Process exiting frees its partition, adjacent free partitions
combined
– Operating system maintains information about:
a) allocated partitions b) free partitions (hole)
OS OS OS OS OS

process 5 process 5 process 5 process 5

process 9 process 9
Hole process 8 process 10

process 2 process 2 process 2 process 2

 Dynamic Storage-Allocation Problem
How to satisfy a request of size n from a list of free holes?
Dynamic storage allocation problem
• First-fit: Allocate the first hole that is big enough

• Best-fit: Allocate the smallest hole that is big enough; must search
entire list, unless ordered by size
– Produces the smallest leftover hole

• Worst-fit: Allocate the largest hole; must also search entire list
– Produces the largest leftover hole
 Hardware Support for Relocation
and Limit Registers

• Relocation registers used to protect user processes from each other, and from changing
operating-system code and data
•Relocation register contains value of smallest physical address
•Limit register contains range of logical addresses – each logical address must be less
than the limit register
•Context switch
•MMU maps logical address dynamically
 Fragmentation
• Processes loaded and removed from memory
– Memory is broken into little pieces

• External Fragmentation – total memory space

exists to satisfy a request, but it is not contiguous

• First fit analysis reveals that given N blocks

allocated, 0.5 N blocks lost to fragmentation
– 1/3 may be unusable -> 50-percent rule
 Fragmentation (Cont.)
• Reduce external fragmentation by compaction
– Shuffle memory contents to place all free memory
together in one large block
– Compaction is possible only if relocation is dynamic,
and is done at execution time
• Change relocation reg.
– Cost

• Internal Fragmentation – allocated memory may

be slightly larger than requested memory; this size
difference is memory internal to a partition, but
not being used
PAGING
 Paging
• Paging is a Memory Management Technique
that permits a contiguous memory to be non-
contiguous in the physical memory and
thereby allows a program to be allocated
physical memory wherever it is possible.
• The primary concept behind paging is to break
each process into individual pages.
– Avoids external fragmentation
– Avoids the problem of varying-sized
memory chunks.
 Paging
• Divide physical memory into fixed-sized blocks called
frames
– Size is power of 2, between 512 bytes and 16 Mbytes
• Divide logical memory into blocks of same size called pages
• Keep track of all free frames
• To run a program of size N pages, need to find N free frames
and load program.
• When a process is to be executed, its pages are loaded into
any available memory frames from the backing store.
• Set up a page table to translate logical to physical addresses
• The mapping between virtual address space and physical
address space is done through paging.
 Paging
• Example
• Assuming that the main memory is 16 KB and the frame size
is 1 KB, the main memory will be partitioned into a collection
of 16 1 KB frames. P1, P2, P3, and P4 are the four processes
in the system, each of which is 4 KB in size. Each process is
separated into 1 KB pages, allowing one page to be saved in a
single frame.
• Because all of the frames are initially empty, the pages of the
processes will be stored in a continuous manner. The graphic
below depicts frames, pages, and the mapping between them.
Paging
 Paging
• Consider the case when P2 and P4 are shifted
to the waiting state after a period of time.
Eight frames are now empty, allowing other
pages to be loaded in to the memory. Inside
the ready queue is the process P5, which is 8
KB (8 pages) in size.
• Given that we have 8 noncontiguous frames
accessible in memory, paging allows us to
store the process in many locations. As a
result, we can load the process P5 page instead
of P2 and P4.
Paging
Example: If you have a 4KB (4096 byte) page size, you need
12 bits to represent the offset because 212=[Link] last 12
bits of the logical address would be the offset.
 Paging

The Page Table contains the base address of each page in Physical memory.
This base address is combined with the page offset to determine the physical
address of the memory.
 Paging
• The Physical Address is divided into the following:

Frame offset(d): It refers to the number of bits necessary to
represent a certain word in a frame, or the Physical Address
Space frame size, the word number of a frame, or the frame
offset.

Frame number(f): It’s the number of bits needed to indicate a
frame of the Physical Address Space or a frame number.
• Dedicated registers can be used to implement the page table in
hardware. We can employ TLB (translation look-aside buffer),
a particular, tiny, fast look-up hardware cache if the page table
has a significant number of entries.
Paging
 Paging
• External fragmentation??
• Calculating internal fragmentation
– Page size = 2,048 bytes
– Process size = 72,766 bytes
– 35 pages + 1,086 bytes
– Internal fragmentation of 2,048 - 1,086 = 962 bytes
• So small frame sizes desirable?
– But increases the page table size
– Poor disk I/O
– Page sizes growing over time
• Solaris supports two page sizes – 8 KB and 4 MB
• User’s view and physical memory now very different
– user view=> process contains in single contiguous memory space
• By implementation process can only access its own memory
– protection
• Each page table entry 4 bytes (32 bits) long
• Each entry can point to 232 page frames
• If each frame is 4 KB
• The system can address 244 bytes (16TB) of
physical memory

Virtual address space 16MB.

Page table size?
• Process P1 arrives
• Requires n pages => n frames must be
available
• Allocate n frames to the process P1
• Create page table for P1
 Frame table Free Frames

Use’s view
System’s view

RAM RAM
Before allocation After allocation
 Implementation of Page Table
• For each process, Page table is kept in main memory
• Page-table base register (PTBR) points to the page table
• Page-table length register (PTLR) indicates size of the
page table
• In this scheme every data/instruction access requires two
memory accesses
– One for the page table and one for the data / instruction
• The two memory access problem can be solved by the
use of a special fast-lookup hardware cache called
associative memory or translation look-aside buffers
(TLBs)
Associative memory
 Associative Memory
• Associative memory – parallel search
Page # Frame #

• Address translation (p, d)

– If p is in associative register, get frame # out
– Otherwise get frame # from page table in memory
 Implementation of Page Table
• For each process, Page table is kept in main memory
• Page-table base register (PTBR) points to the page table
• Page-table length register (PTLR) indicates size of the page table
• In this scheme every data/instruction access requires two memory accesses
– One for the page table and one for the data / instruction
• The two memory access problem can be solved by the use of a special fast-lookup
hardware cache called associative memory or translation look-aside buffers (TLBs)

• TLBs typically small (64 to 1,024 entries)

• On a TLB miss, value is loaded into the TLB for faster access next time
– Replacement policies must be considered (LRU)
– Some entries can be wired down for permanent fast access

• Some TLBs store address-space identifiers (ASIDs) in each TLB entry – uniquely
identifies each process (PID) to provide address-space protection for that process
– Otherwise need to flush at every context switch
Paging Hardware With TLB
 Effective Access Time
• Associative Lookup =  time unit
– Can be < 10% of memory access time

• Hit ratio = 
– Hit ratio – percentage of times that a page number is found in the
associative registers; ratio related to size of TLB

• Consider  = 80%,  = 20ns for TLB search, 100ns for memory access

• Effective Access Time (EAT)

EAT = (100 + )  + (200 + )(1 – )

• Consider  = 80%,  = 20ns for TLB search, 100ns for memory access
– EAT = 0.80 x 120 + 0.20 x 220 = 140ns

• Consider better hit ratio ->  = 98%,  = 20ns for TLB search, 100ns for
memory access
– EAT = 0.98 x 120 + 0.02 x 220 = 122ns
 Memory Protection
• Memory protection implemented by associating protection bit
with each frame to indicate if read-only or read-write access is
allowed
– Can also add more bits to indicate page execute-only, and so on

• Valid-invalid bit attached to each entry in the page table:

– “valid” indicates that the associated page is in the process’ logical
address space, and is thus a legal page
– “invalid” indicates that the page is not in the process’ logical
address space
– Or use PTLR

• Any violations result in a trap to the kernel

 Valid (v) or Invalid (i)
Bit In A Page Table
14 bit address space (0 to 16383)
Page size 2KB
Process P1 uses only 0 to 10468
P2
Page 0 P1
Page 1
Page 2
Page 3

Internal fragmentation Use of PTLR (length)

 Shared Pages Example
• System with 40 users
– Use common text editor
• Text editor contains 150KB code 50KB data (page size 50KB)
– 8000KB!
• Shared code
– One copy of read-only (reentrant) code shared among
processes (i.e., text editors, compilers, window systems)
• Code never changes during execution
• Only one copy of the editor in the memory
• Total memory consumption
– 40*50+150=2150KB
Shared Pages Example
 Data share: example
writer.c
reader .c
int main()
{ int main()
{
int shmid,f,key=3,i,pid;
char *ptr; int shmid,f,key=3,i,pid;
char *ptr;
shmid=shmget((key_t)key,100,IPC_CREAT|0666);
ptr=shmat(shmid,NULL,0); shmid=shmget((key_t)key,100,IPC_CREAT|0666);
printf("shmid=%d ptr=%u\n",shmid, ptr); ptr=shmat(shmid,NULL,0);
strcpy(ptr,"hello"); printf("shmid=%d ptr=%u\n",shmid, ptr);
i=shmdt((char*)ptr); printf("\nstr %s\n",ptr);
}
}

ptr
Shared
memory
 Structure of the Page Table
• Memory requirement for page table can get huge using straight-
forward methods
– Consider a 32-bit logical address space as on modern computers
– Page size of 4 KB (212)
– Page table would have 1 million entries 220 (232 / 212)
– If each entry is 4 bytes -> 4 MB of physical address space / memory for
page table alone
• That amount of memory used to cost a lot
• Don’t want to allocate that contiguously in main memory

• Hierarchical Paging

• Hashed Page Tables

• Inverted Page Tables

 Hierarchical Page Tables
• Break up the page table into multiple
pages

• We then page the page table

• A simple technique is a two-level page

table
Two-Level Page-Table Scheme
 Two-Level Paging Example
• A logical address (on 32-bit machine with 4KB page size) is
divided into:
– a page number consisting of 20 bits
– a page offset consisting of 12 bits
• Since the page table is paged, the page number is further
divided into:
– a 10-bit page number
– a 10-bit page offset
• Thus, a logical address is as follows:

page number page offset

p1 p2 d
10 10 12

• where p1 is an index into the outer page table, and p2 is the

displacement within the page of the inner page table
 Two-Level Page-Table Scheme
Each divided page table
size=210 *4bytes=4KB
=Page size

d
p1

p2

Pentium II
 Address-Translation Scheme

Pentium II
 64-bit Logical Address Space
• Even two-level paging scheme not sufficient
• If page size is 4 KB (212)
– Then page table has 252 entries
– If two level scheme, inner page tables could be 210 4-byte entries
– Address would look like
inner page
outer page page offset
p1 p2 d
42 10 12

– Outer page table has 242 entries or 244 bytes

– One solution is to add a 2nd outer page table
– But in the following example the 2nd outer page table is still 234
bytes in size
• And possibly 4 memory access to get to one physical memory location
 Three-level Paging Scheme

SPARC (32 bits), Motorola 68030 support three and four level paging respectively
 Hashed Page Tables
• Common in virtual address spaces > 32 bits

• The page number is hashed into a page table

– This page table contains a chain of elements hashing to the same
location

• Each element contains (1) the page number (2) the value of the
mapped page frame (3) a pointer to the next element

• Virtual page numbers are compared in this chain searching for a

match
– If a match is found, the corresponding physical frame is extracted
Hashed Page Table
 Inverted Page Table
• Rather than each process having a page table and
keeping track of all possible logical pages, track all
frames

• One entry for each frame

• Entry consists the page number stored in that frame,

with information about the process that owns that page

• Decreases memory needed to store each page table,

– but increases time needed to search the table when a page
reference occurs
 Inverted Page Table Architecture
64 bit UltraSPARC, PowerPC,

Address space ID
 Segmentation
• Programmers write a program, not in terms of
pages but in terms of modules to reduce the
problem size.
• Segmentation is a memory management
scheme that supports the programmer’s view of
memory.
• Segmentation supports the concepts of
modules.
• A segment is a logical unit of a program of
different sizes such as:
– Main program
– Procedure
– Function
– Local variables
– Global variables
 Segmentation
• All segments have a name and are of
different sizes.
• Division of logical address space into
variable–sized segments eliminates the
problem of internal fragmentation.
• Each segment is identified by a name
and its length.
• The logical address is:-
Segment Name
Offset
 Segmentation
• To convert the logical address into the
physical address the base register must
be known.
• The starting address of all the segments
is stored in a table(segment table).
• Limit is used to check the length of the
segment.
• The Segment table is a data structure
used to store the base address of each
segment along with their limits.
 Segmentation
• Steps for logical to Physical Address
– Processor generates a two-dimensional logical
address that consists of S and D.
– The segment number S is extracted from
logical address and is used as an index of the
segment table.
– After getting the segment number its offset d
is checked with the limit of the segment.
– If d <=length, then goto next step, otherwise ,
an interrupt is generated to indicate that the
address is not valid.
– The base address is added to d to get the
physical address.
User’s View of a Program
User specifies each address by two
quantities
(a)Segment name
(b)Segment offset

Logical address contains the tuple

<segment#, offset>

• Variable size segments without order

• Length=> purpose of the program
• Elements are identified by offset
 Logical View of Segmentation
Logical address <segment-number, offset>
1

4
1

3 2
4

Logical
address
space user space physical memory space

• Long term scheduler finds and allocates memory for all segments of a program
• Variable size partition scheme
 Segmentation
Base address Length 4100 Seg-0
4300

1000 Seg-1
0 4100 200 1700

1 1000 700 1700 Seg-4

2700
2 3700 400
3700 Seg-2
4100
3 1800 900
1800 Seg-3
4 2700 1000 2700

Memory
Segment Table
 Segmentation Architecture
• Logical address consists of a two tuple:
<segment-number, offset>
• Segment table – maps two-dimensional logical address
to physical address;
• Each table entry has:
– base – contains the starting physical address where the
segments reside in memory
– limit – specifies the length of the segment
• Segment-table base register (STBR) points to the
segment table’s location in memory
• Segment-table length register (STLR) indicates number
of segments used by a program;
segment number s is legal if s < STLR
Example of Segmentation
Address mapping in Segmentation
Example of Segmentation
 Segmentation Architecture

• Protection
• Protection bits associated with segments
– With each entry in segment table associate:
• validation bit = 0  illegal segment
• read/write/execute privileges
• Code sharing occurs at segment level
• Since segments vary in length, memory allocation is
a dynamic storage-allocation problem
– Long term scheduler
– First fit, best fit etc
• Fragmentation
 Segmentation with Paging
Key idea:
Segments are splitted into multiple pages

Each page is loaded into frames in the memory

 Numerical Problem on Segmentation
• Consider the following segment table
Segment Base Add Limit
0 219 600
1 2300 14
2 90 10
3 1327 580
4 1952 96

• What are the Physical address for the

following logical address?
• a)0,430 (b)1,10 (c) 2,500 (d)3,400 (e)4,112
Numerical Problem on Segmentation
Logical Physical Address
Address
S d If d<Limit Calculate Base+d
0 430 430 < 600 Yes 219+430=649
1 10 10<14 Yes 2300+10=2310
2 500 500<14 No Error
3 400 400 <580 Yes 1327+400=1727
4 112 112 < 96 No Error
 Segmentation with Paging
• Supports segmentation with paging
– Each segment can be 4 GB
– Up to 16 K segments per process S(13) G(1) P(2)
– <selector(16), offset (32)>
– Divided into two partitions
• First partition of up to 8 K segments are private to process (kept in local
descriptor table LDT)
• Second partition of up to 8K segments shared among all processes (kept in
global descriptor table GDT)

• CPU generates logical address (six Segment Reg.)

– Given to segmentation unit
• Which produces linear addresses
– Physical address 32 bits
– Linear address given to paging unit Intel 80386
• Which generates physical address in main memory
• Paging units form equivalent of MMU IBM OS/2
• Pages sizes can be 4 KB
Logical to Physical Address
Translation in Pentium

Page table=220
entries
Example: The Intel Pentium

8 bytes Segment register

Intel Pentium Segmentation
Pentium Paging Architecture
Virtual Memory
 Virtual Memory
The common problem is how to fit Large

program into the small memory.

Entire program code not needed at same
time.
The solution developed was to break
programs into small pieces called
overlays.
The first overlay would be loaded and
executed first, which in turn call other
overlays.
The overlays to be on hard disk and
 Background
• Consider ability to execute
partially-loaded program
– Program no longer constrained by
limits of physical memory
– programs could be larger than
physical memory
– More processes can be
accommodated
 Virtual Memory
• Virtual memory is a memory management
technique which does splitting of a program
into number of pieces as well as swapping.
• The basic idea is that the combined size of the
program, data and stack may exceed the
amount of physical memory.
• The OS keeps those parts of the program in
the memory which are required during
execution and the rest on the disk.
• The main objective is to support
multiprogramming.
 Virtual Memory That is
Larger Than Physical Memory

Large virtual
space

Small memory
 Advantages of Virtual
Memory
•By using virtual memory many applications or programs
can be executed at a time.

•Main memory has limited space but you can increase

and decrease the size of virtual memory by yourself.
•Users can run large programs that have a size greater
than the main memory
•The data which is common in memory can be shared
between RAM and virtual memory
•CPU utilization can be increased because more
processes can reside in the main memory
•The cost of buying extra RAM is saved by using virtual
memory
 Disadvantages of virtual
memory
•Virtual memory tends to slow down your computer
because the speed of the hard drive is less than
RAM

•Switching between applications takes more time

•As virtual memory allocates space on the hard

drive so for user use the hard drive space becomes
less

•The overall performance of the system is affected

•The algorithm for virtual memory is difficult to

implement
 Classical paging
• Process P1 arrives
• Requires n pages => n frames must be
available
• Allocate n frames to the process P1
• Create page table for P1

Allocate < n frames

 Background
• Virtual memory – separation of user logical memory from
physical memory
– Extremely large logical space is available to programmer
– Concentrate on the problem
• Only part of the program needs to be in memory for
execution
– Logical address space can therefore be much larger than physical
address space
– Starts with address 0, allocates contiguous logical memory
– Physical memory
• Collection of frame

• Virtual memory can be implemented via:

– Demand paging
– Demand segmentation
 Demand Paging
• Pages are loaded only on demand not
in advance.
• Similar to paging with swapping.
• Bring a page into memory only when it
is needed.
• To implement demand paging , it is
necessary to keep track of which pages
are currently in use.
• PMT contains an entry bit for each
virtual page .
• Entry bit is marked as YES , if the page
is in the memory.
 Demand Paging
• The entry bit is marked as NO ,if a
particular page is not in memory.
• Page fault occurs due to missing of a
page in the main memory.
• When page fault error occurs, the
following actions are taken by the OS.
[Link] whether it was a valid
memory reference to a page. If yes ,
the page is brought in the memory.
[Link] bring a page, a free frame is
searched for.
 Transfer of a Paged Memory to
Contiguous Disk Space

• When we want to
execute a process, swap
in

• Instead of swap in entire

process, load page

• Pager
 Page Table When Some Pages
Are Not in Main Memory

Pager loads few necessary pages in

memory
 Valid-Invalid Bit
• With each page table entry a valid–invalid bit is associated
(v  in-memory – memory resident, i  not-in-memory)
• Initially valid–invalid bit is set to i on all entries
• Example of a page table snapshot:
Frame # valid-invalid bit
v
v
v
v
i page table

….

ii Disk
address
• During address translation, if valid–invalid bit in page table entry
is i  page fault
 Page Fault
• If the page in not in memory, first reference to that page will trap to
operating system:
page fault

1. Operating system looks at PCB to decide:

– Invalid reference  abort
– Just not in memory (load the page)
2. Get empty frame
3. Swap page into frame via scheduled disk operation
4. Reset page table to indicate page now in memory
Set validation bit = v
5. Restart the instruction that caused the page fault
 What Happens if There is no Free Frame?
• Example
– 40 frames in memory
– 8 processes each needs 10 pages
– 5 of them never used
• Two options
– Run 4 processes (10 pages)
– Run 8 processes (5 pages)
• Increase the degree of multiprogramming
– Over allocating memory

• Page fault
– No free frame
– Terminate? swap out? replace the page?

• Page replacement – find some page in memory, not really in use, page it out

– Performance – want an algorithm which will result in minimum number of page faults

• Same page may be brought into memory several times

Steps in Handling a Page Fault
Check
PCB
 Pure Demand Paging
• Extreme case – start process with no pages in memory
– OS sets instruction pointer to first instruction of process, non-
memory-resident -> page fault
– Swap in that page
– Pure demand paging
• Actually, a given instruction could access multiple pages
(instruction + data) -> multiple page faults
– Pain decreased because of locality of reference
• Hardware support needed for demand paging
– Page table with valid / invalid bit
– Secondary memory (swap device with swap space)
– Instruction restart after page fault
 Steps in the ISR
• In Demand Paging
1. Trap to the operating system
2. Save the user registers and process state
3. Determine that the interrupt was a page fault
4. Check that the page reference was legal and determine the location of the page on the disk
5. Get a free frame
6. Issue a read from the disk to a free frame:
1. Wait in a queue for this device until the read request is serviced
2. Wait for the device seek and/or latency time
3. Begin the transfer of the page to a free frame
7. While waiting, allocate the CPU to some other user
8. Receive an interrupt from the disk I/O subsystem (I/O completed)
9. Save the registers and process state of the running process
10. Determine that the interrupt was from the disk
11. Correct the page table and other tables to show page is now in memory
12. Wait for the CPU to be allocated to this process again
13. Restore the user registers, process state, and new page table, and then resume the interrupted
instruction
 Performance of Demand Paging
Demand paging affects the performance of the computer systems

• Page Fault Rate 0  p  1

– if p = 0 no page faults
– if p = 1, every reference is a fault

• Effective Access Time (EAT)

EAT = (1 – p) x memory access
+ p (page fault overhead
+ swap page out
+ swap page in
+ restart overhead
)
 Demand Paging Example
• Memory access time = 200 nanoseconds
• Average page-fault service time = 8 milliseconds

• EAT = (1 – p) x 200 + p (8 milliseconds)

= (1 – p ) x 200 + p x 8,000,000
= 200 + p x 7,999,800
• If one access out of 1,000 causes a page fault, then
EAT = 8.2 microseconds.
This is a slowdown by a factor of 40!!
• If want performance degradation < 10 percent
– 220 > 200 + 7,999,800 x p
20 > 7,999,800 x p
– p < .0000025
– < one page fault in every 400,000 memory accesses

Better utilization of swap space

Swap space
 Allocation of Frames
• How do we allocate the fixed amount of
memory among various processes?

• Single user system

– Trivial
 Allocation of Frames
• Each process needs minimum number of frames
• Minimum number is defined by the instruction set
• Page fault forces to restart the instruction
– Enough frames to hold all the pages for that
instruction
• Example:
– Single address instruction (2 frames)
– Two address instruction (3 frames)
• Maximum of course is total frames in the system
• Two major allocation schemes
– fixed allocation
– proportional allocation
 Fixed and proportional Allocation
• Equal allocation – m frames and n processes
– Each process gets m/n
• For example, if there are 100 frames (after allocating frames
for the OS) and 5 processes, give each process 20 frames
– Keep some as free frame buffer pool
• Unfair for small and large sized processes
• Proportional allocation – Allocate according to the size of
process
– Dynamic as degree of multiprogramming, process sizes
m 64
change
si size of process pi s1 10
s2 127
S   si
10
m total number of frames a1  64 5
137
s 127
ai allocation for pi  i m a2  64 59
S 137
 Priority Allocation
Allocation of frames
•Depends on multiprogramming level

•Use a proportional allocation scheme using

priorities along with size
 Need For Page Replacement
P1

P2
 Need For Page Replacement
P1

P2

PC
 Basic Page Replacement
1. Find the location of the desired page on disk

2. Find a free frame:

- If there is a free frame, use it
- If there is no free frame, use a page replacement algorithm to
select a victim frame (of that process)
- Write victim frame to disk

3. Bring the desired page into the (newly) free frame; update the page
and frame tables

4. Continue the process by restarting the instruction that caused the trap

Note now potentially 2 page transfers for page fault – increasing Effective
memory access time
 Page Replacement

5
5 6
6
 Page Replacement

5 5
6

6
 Evaluation
• Evaluate algorithm by running it on a particular string
of memory references (reference string) and
computing the number of page faults on that string
– String is just page numbers, not full addresses
– Repeated access to the same page does not cause a page
fault
• Trace the memory reference of a process
0100, 0432, 0101, 0612, 0102, 0104, 0101, 0611, 0102
• Page size 100B
• Reference string 1, 4, 1, 6, 1, 6

• In all our examples, the reference string is

7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
Graph of Page Faults Versus
The Number of Frames
First-In-First-Out (FIFO) Algorithm

When there is no place in the self to keep a new book,

the oldest book is replaced.

When a page must be replaced, the oldest one is

chosen
Reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1

Replace a page that is the oldest page of all the

pages that has been the longest time in
memory.
 FIFO Page Replacement
3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time)

15 page faults

Page fault rate=no. of page fault/no of bits in the reference string

FPR=20/15=1.33
 Belady’s Anomaly
• Number of page fault decreases
when the number of frame
increases.
• An unexpected behaviour of FIFO
noticed by Belady that , if the no.
of frame is increased, the page
fault rate will be decreased.
 Optimal Algorithm

• Replace page that will not be used for longest

period of time

• How do you know this?

– Can’t read the future

• Used for measuring how well your algorithm

performs
Optimal Page Replacement

9 page faults
 Least Recently Used (LRU)
Algorithm
• Use past knowledge rather than future
– Past is the proxy of future
• Replace page that has not been used in the most of the time
• Associate time of last use with each page

• 12 faults – better than FIFO but worse than OPT

• Generally good algorithm and frequently used
• But how to implement?
 LRU Algorithm-Implementation
• Counter implementation
– CPU maintains a clock
– Every page entry has a Time of use;
• every time page is referenced, copy the clock into the time of
use
– When a page needs to be replaced, look at the “Time of use” to
find smallest value
• Search through table needed
Page table

Time of
Clock Use
CPU
0
1
address
2
3
 LRU Algorithm-Implementation
• Stack implementation
• Keep a stack of page numbers in a double linked list form:
• Page referenced:
• move it to the top
• Victim page is the bottom page
 LRU Approximation Algorithms
• LRU needs special hardware and still slow
• Reference bit
– With each page associate a bit, initially = 0
– When page is referenced bit set to 1
• Additional reference bit algorithm
– Record the reference bits in regular interval
– Keep a 8 bit string for each page in memory
– At regular interval, timer copies the reference bit
to the high order bit (MSB) of the string.
– Shift the other bits right side by one bit
Reset
reference
LRU Approximation Algorithms
Period Period Period

0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
 LRU Approximation Algorithms
• LRU needs special hardware and still slow
• Reference bit
– With each page associate a bit, initially = 0
– When page is referenced bit set to 1
• Additional reference bit algorithm
• Second-chance algorithm
– Generally FIFO, plus hardware-provided reference bit
– Clock replacement
– If page to be replaced has
• Reference bit = 0 -> replace it
• reference bit = 1 then:
– set reference bit 0, leave page in memory (reset the time)
– replace next page, subject to same rules
 Second-Chance (clock) Page-Replacement Algorithm

{Reference bit, Dirty bit} combination

 Counting Algorithms
• Keep a counter of the number of references
that have been made to each page
Least and most frequently used

• LFU Algorithm: replaces page with smallest

count

• MFU Algorithm: based on the argument that

the page with the smallest count was
probably just brought in and has yet to be
used
Graph of Page Faults Versus
The Number of Frames
Increase in page frame decreases page fault rate?

FIFO Example –
Program - 5 pages,
3 frames of Memory allocated
1 2 3 4 1 2 5 1 2 3 4 5

9 1 1 1 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5
faults 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3
3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 4 4
        
 FIFO Example –
Program - 5 pages,
4 frames of Memory allocated
1 2 3 4 1 2 5 1 2 3 4 5

1 1 1 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3
3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 4 4

10 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 5 4 4
faults 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 5
3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2
4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3
         
 Belady's Anomaly
# of Page Faults

Number of Frames
cs431-cotter 130
 Belady’s Anomaly
• This most unexpected result is known as
Belady’s anomaly – for some page-
replacement algorithms, the page fault rate
may increase as the number of allocated
frames increases

• Is there a characterization of algorithms

susceptible to Belady’s anomaly?
 Stack Algorithms
• Certain page replacement algorithms are more “well
behaved” than others
• (In the FIFO example), the problem arises because the set of
pages loaded with a memory allocation of 3 frames is not
necessarily also loaded with a memory allocation of 4 frames

• There are a set of paging algorithms whereby the set of pages

loaded with an allocation of m frames is always a subset of
the set of pages loaded with an allocation of m +1 frames.
This property is called the inclusion property

• Algorithms that satisfy the inclusion property are not subject

to Belady’s anomaly. FIFO does not satisfy the inclusion
property and is not a stack algorithm
 LRU algorithm
6 5 3 6 4 3 9
3 6 4 3 9
In memory
3 frames 5 3 6 4 3
6 5 3 6 4
5 5 6
5 Outside
memory

3 6 4 3 9
5 3 6 4 3 In memory
4 frames 6 5 3 4
6
5 5 6
5
 Global vs. Local Allocation
• Frames are allocated to various processes

• If process Pi generates a page fault

– select for replacement one of its frames
– select for replacement a frame from another process

• Local replacement – each process selects from only its own set of
allocated frames
– More consistent per-process performance
– But possibly underutilized memory

• Global replacement – process selects a replacement frame from the

set of all frames; one process can take a frame from another
– But then process execution time can vary greatly
– But greater throughput ----- so more common
• Processes can not control its own page fault rate
– Depends on the paging behavior of other processes
 Thrashing
• If a process uses a set of “active pages”
– Number of allocated frames is less than that
• Page-fault
– Replace some “active” page
– But quickly need replaced “active” frame back
– Quickly a page fault, again and again
– Thrashing  a process is busy swapping pages in and out

• OS monitors CPU utilization

– If low? Increase the degree of multiprogramming
 Thrashing
• Global page replacement
– Process enters new phase (subroutine call) execution
– Page fault
– Taking frames from other processes
• Replace “active” frames of other processes
– These processes start page fault
– These faulting processes wait on the device queue for disk
• Ready queue empty
– CPU utilization decreases Disk

• CPU scheduler increases the degree of multiprogramming

– More page faults
– Drop in CPU utilization
• Page fault increases tremendously
Thrashing (Cont.)
 Thrashing
• Solution
– Local replacement
– One process cannot steal frames from other
processes
• Provide a process as many frames as needed
– Able to load all active pages
– How do we know?
– Locality model
 Demand Paging and Thrashing
• Why does demand paging work?
Locality model
– Process migrates from one locality to another
– Localities may overlap

• Allocate enough frames to a process to accommodate its

locality

• Why does thrashing occur?

 size of locality > total allocated frames
– Limit effects by using local or priority page replacement
Locality In A Memory-Reference Pattern
Working-set model
 Working-Set Model
•   working-set window  a fixed number of page
references
Example: 10,000 instructions
• WSSi (working set of Process Pi) =
total number of pages referenced in the most recent  (varies
in time)
– if  too small will not encompass entire locality
– if  too large will encompass several localities
– if  =   will encompass entire program
• D =  WSSi  total demand frames
– Approximation of locality
• if D > m  Thrashing
• Policy if D > m, then suspend or swap out one of the
processes
 Page-Fault Frequency
• More direct approach than WSS
• Establish “acceptable” page-fault frequency (PFF)
rate and use local replacement policy
– If actual rate too low, process loses frame
– If actual rate too high, process gains frame