Chapter 4
Thermal Neutrons
Source of Thermal Neutrons
• A nuclear reactor is the most abundant source of thermal neutrons,
which are neutrons in thermal equilibrium with their surroundings.
• These thermal neutrons originate from fast fission neutrons whose high
energies are reduced through many collisions with materials in the
reactor designed specifically for this moderation process.
Thermal Reactors
• A reactor in which almost all fissions occur by thermal neutrons is called
a thermal reactor.
Statistical Approach
• Because a reactor contains a very large number of neutrons,
understanding their behavior requires a statistical treatment very similar
to that of the kinetic theory of gases..
Energy Distribution of Thermal Neutrons
The neutrons in a nuclear reactor are not of uniform energy but are distributed Over an
energy range that extends from very slow to very fast neutrons of some 17 Mev (Fig. 4.1).
Energy Distribution of Thermal Neutrons
•The neutrons in a nuclear reactor do not have a single energy; instead, they are distributed over a wide
energy range, from very slow neutrons up to very fast neutrons of about 17 MeV.
•Fast neutrons are constantly produced by nuclear fissions in the reactor, while slow neutrons are steadily
removed by absorption processes, mainly leading to fission and the production of new fast neutrons.
•To compensate the continuous loss of slow neutrons, the fast neutrons must be slowed down rapidly and
efficiently. This slowing-down process is called moderation or thermalization.
•This rapid transformation of fast neutrons to slow neutrons is achieved by a moderating material
(moderator) placed inside the reactor. The moderator slows down the fast fission neutrons through elastic
collisions between the neutrons and the moderator nuclei until the average kinetic energy of the neutrons
becomes equal to that of the moderator nuclei.
•A good moderator must have a scattering cross section much larger than its absorption cross section.
This allows neutrons to reach thermal energies quickly and reduces the chance of their being absorbed without
contributing to fission.
•When a kind of thermal equilibrium is established between the neutrons and the surrounding material, the
neutrons are said to be thermalized, and their energy distribution becomes approximately Maxwellian,
corresponding to the temperature of the medium.
Moderation of neutrons by elastic collisions with moderator nuclei.
For neutrons in thermal equilibrium with the moderator the velocity distribution will be given by the
Maxwell-Boltzmann expression
1 2
mv
4n0
dn n(v)dv v exp( 2
2
)dv
(2kT / m) 3/ 2
kT
1 2
mv
4n0
dn n(v)dv v exp( 2
2
)dv
(2kT / m) 3/ 2
kT
where n0 is the number of neutrons per cm3, m is the neutron mass, T the temperature, and k the
Boltzmann constant. The number of neutrons whose velocities lie between and + d is given by
dn = n() d.
where n0 is the number of neutrons per cm3, m is the neutron mass, T the temperature, and k the Boltzmann
constant. The number of neutrons whose velocities lie between and + d is given by
dn = n() d
the most probable velocity
The neutron temperature corresponding to a neutron energy
Ekin is defined as
Neutron Energy Distribution vs. Moderator Temperature
If neutrons were left alone with the moderator (water, graphit):
•they would gradually collide many times,
•lose or gain small amounts of energy,
•and finally reach a Maxwell distribution at the same
temperature as the moderator.
So normally:
Neutrons + moderator → same temperature.
the actual distribution is distorted (solid curve) •Dashed curve → Maxwell distribution at the moderator
temperature
•Solid curve → Actual neutron distribution in the reactor
As shown in Fig. 4.5:
•The solid curve (actual distribution) is higher than the Maxwell
curve at high speeds.
•It is lower than the Maxwell curve at low speeds. •More fast neutrons → pushes the average energy upward.
These two effects push the average neutron energy upward, so •Fewer slow neutrons → also pushes the average upward.
the neutron population behaves as if it has a higher Both effects increase the mean energy.
temperature than the moderator.
the actual distribution is distorted (solid curve)
Two processes in a reactor disturb the perfect Maxwellian shape:
A) Fission continuously adds fast neutrons
Look at the right side of the figure (high-speed region).
You see the solid curve is above the dashed curve.
This means:
•There are more fast neutrons than expected.
•The high-energy tail is raised.
Why?
Because fission produces neutrons with very high energies (MeV).
These keep entering the system all the time.
B) Fuel absorbs slow neutrons
Look at the left side of the figure (low-speed region).
You see the solid curve is below the dashed curve.
This means:
•There are fewer slow neutrons than expected.
•The low-energy part is depressed.
Why?
Because fuel (U-235) prefers to absorb slow thermal neutrons, so they are removed more quickly than the fast ones.
Effective cross section
Since thermal neutrons have many different speeds, and cross section depends on speed, we cannot use just one value of
σ. So we define an effective cross section
Example 4.2. Calculate the effective cross section of U235 for neutrons thermalized at 3600 K.
U-235 does not follow the 1/ν law perfectly. It has a correction factor:
So we multiply:
ˉ
𝜎 = 0 . 886 × 601 =532 barns