Electro-Chemical energy storage system
A battery = an electrochemical device → converts chemical energy ↔ electrical energy,
using anode, cathode, electrolyte, separator.
1. Anode (−) – Negative Terminal
• Where oxidation happens (loss of electrons).
• Releases electrons into the circuit.
2. Cathode (+) – Positive Terminal
• Where reduction happens (gain of electrons).
• Accepts electrons returning from the circuit.
3. Electrolyte
• A chemical medium that allows ions to move between the anode and cathode.
• Keeps the flow of electricity going.
Types of batteries,
• Batteries come in many types, depending on their chemistry, size, and application.
• The main types of batteries,
• Primary (non-rechargeable)
• Secondary (rechargeable)
PRIMARY BATTERIES (Non-Rechargeable)
• These are single-use and cannot be recharged.
1. Alkaline 4. Silver-Oxide
Common uses: Remote controls, clocks, flashlights. Common uses: Watches, hearing aids.
Voltage: 1.5V (AA, AAA, C, D cells) Pros: Stable voltage, high energy-to-weight ratio.
Pros: Inexpensive, long life. 5. Zinc-Air
2. Lithium (Primary) Common uses: Hearing aids.
Types: CR123A, CR2032 (coin cells), AA Lithium Pros: High energy density, activated by air.
Common uses: Cameras, watches, medical devices.
Pros: Long life, high energy density, good performance
in extreme temperatures.
3. Zinc-Carbon
Common uses: Low-drain devices (toys, radios).
Voltage: 1.5V
Pros: Cheap, but shorter lifespan than alkaline.
SECONDARY BATTERIES (Rechargeable)
These can be charged and reused many times.
1. Lithium-ion (Li-ion) 4. Lead-Acid
Common uses: Phones, laptops, electric vehicles (EVs). Types: Flooded, AGM (absorbent glass mat) , Gel.
Pros: High energy density, lightweight, no memory effect. Common uses: Car batteries, UPS systems.
Pros: Reliable, inexpensive.
Variants: Li-Po (Lithium Polymer) – used in drones, RC
devices. Cons: Heavy, low energy density.
2. Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) 5. Flow Batteries (used mostly in large-scale
Common uses: Rechargeable AA/AAA batteries, cameras. storage)
Pros: Safer than Li-ion, good for moderate drain devices. Common uses: Grid energy storage.
3. Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) Pros: Long cycle life, scalable.
Common uses: Power tools, older cordless phones. Cons: Bulky, not for portable use.
Pros: Durable, handles high discharge rates.
Cons: Memory effect, contains toxic cadmium.
Comparison table between Primary and Secondary (Rechargeable)
batteries:
Primary Batteries (Non- Secondary Batteries
Feature
rechargeable) (Rechargeable)
Used once, Can be recharged by reversing
Definition
chemical reaction is not reversible chemical reaction
Cost Low initial cost Higher initial cost
Lifespan Single-use, short life Long life, can be used many cycles
Lower compared to primary (but
Energy Density Generally higher
improving in Li-ion)
May need maintenance (e.g., lead-
Maintenance No maintenance required
acid requires topping up water)
Remote controls, toys, flashlights, Automobiles, laptops, smartphones,
Applications
calculators, medical devices UPS, renewable energy storage
Lead-acid, Lithium-ion, Nickel-
Alkaline battery, Zinc-carbon,
Examples Cadmium (NiCd), Nickel-Metal
Lithium coin cell
Hydride (NiMH)
Environmental Can be recycled, more eco-friendly in
Less recyclable, creates waste
Impact long term
Emerging Battery Types
• Solid-State Batteries – Safer and more compact than Li-ion (still in development).
• Sodium-ion Batteries – A promising alternative to lithium for large-scale storage.
• Graphene Batteries – Under research; potential for ultra-fast charging.
Year Development Notes
1800 Voltaic Pile First true battery
1859 Lead-Acid First rechargeable battery
1899 Nickel-Cadmium Durable, toxic
1950s Alkaline Long-lasting primary battery
1980s Nickel-Metal Hydride Rechargeable, safer than NiCd
1991 Lithium-Ion Modern portable power
2020s+ Solid-State, Sodium-Ion Emerging future tech
How Does It Work?
• When connected to a circuit:
• The anode releases electrons (oxidation).
• Electrons flow through the external circuit → power the device.
• The cathode receives electrons (reduction).
• Ions move through the electrolyte to balance charges.
• This continuous flow of electrons = electric current.
Key Parameters
• Voltage (V): Electrical potential difference between cathode and anode.
• Capacity (Ah or mAh): Amount of charge the battery can store.
• Energy density (Wh/kg): Energy per unit weight.
• Cycle life: Number of charge–discharge cycles.
Lead-Acid Battery
• A lead-acid battery is the oldest and most widely used rechargeable battery.
• It was invented by Gaston Planté in 1859.
• Still used today in vehicles, UPS systems, and backup power because it is low-cost,
reliable, and can deliver high current.
Basic Construction
A typical lead-acid cell has:
• Anode (Negative Plate): Sponge lead (Pb).
• Cathode (Positive Plate): Lead dioxide (PbO₂).
• Electrolyte: Dilute sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄).
• Separator: Porous material to prevent direct contact of electrodes but allow ion movement.
Working Principle
• It works on electrochemical reactions between lead, lead dioxide, and sulfuric acid.
• During discharge:
• At cathode: PbO₂ + 4H⁺ + SO₄²⁻ + 2e⁻ → PbSO₄ + 2H₂O
• The lead dioxide (PbO₂) on the positive plate reacts with + Hydrogen ions (4H⁺) from
sulfuric acid Sulfate ions (SO₄²⁻) → Electrons (2e⁻) that came from the external circuit
• This produces lead sulfate (PbSO₄) and water (H₂O).
• Electrons flow through the external circuit → electricity.
• During charging, the reaction is reversed
Working Principle
• It works on electrochemical reactions between lead, lead dioxide, and sulfuric acid.
• During discharge:
• At anode: Pb → PbSO₄ + 2e⁻
• The lead metal (Pb) reacts with sulfate ions (SO₄²⁻) from sulfuric acid.
• It forms lead sulfate (PbSO₄) on the plate.
• In the process, two electrons (2e⁻) are released into the external circuit.
• 👉 This is an oxidation reaction (loss of electrons).
Features
• Cell voltage: ~2 V per cell (a 12 V battery has 6 cells in series).
• Rechargeable: By applying external DC source.
• Heavy and bulky compared to modern batteries.
• Low energy density, but high surge current capability (good for starting engines).
Applications
• Automobiles (car starter batteries).
• Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS).
• Emergency lighting.
• Power backup for telecom and industrial systems.
• Renewable energy storage (solar, wind).
• A Li-ion battery is a rechargeable, high-performance battery that works by travelling lithium
ions between anode and cathode.
• It is lightweight, efficient, and widely used in modern electronics, EVs, and energy storage
systems.
Basic Construction
• Anode (Negative Electrode): Usually graphite (carbon).
• Cathode (Positive Electrode): Lithium metal oxide (like LiCoO₂, LiFePO₄, LiMn₂O₄, etc.).
• Electrolyte: Lithium salt (e.g., LiPF₆) dissolved in an organic solvent, allowing Li⁺ ions to move.
• Separator: Microporous membrane that prevents short-circuiting but allows ion flow.
Working Principle
• During Discharge (battery in use):
• Lithium ions move from the anode → cathode through the electrolyte.
• Electrons flow from anode → cathode through the external circuit, powering the device.
• During Charging:
• An external charger forces Li⁺ ions to move from cathode → anode.
• The battery stores energy in the anode.
Features of Li-ion Batteries
• High energy density (more power in small size).
• Lightweight compared to lead-acid and NiCd batteries.
• Low self-discharge rate (2–3% per month).
• Fast charging possible.
• Cycle life: 2000+ cycles depending on type.
• No memory effect (unlike NiCd).
• Require protection circuits to prevent overcharging, overheating, or deep discharge.
Applications
• Portable electronics (smartphones, laptops, cameras).
• Electric vehicles (EVs, e-bikes).
• Renewable energy storage (solar, wind).
• Medical equipment.
• Aerospace and drones.
• .
Advantages of Li-ion Batteries
• High Energy Density – Stores more energy per weight/volume compared to lead-acid or NiCd.
• Lightweight and Compact – Much lighter than lead-acid (important for EVs, laptops, drones).
• Low Self-Discharge – Loses only ~2–3% charge per month when not in use.
• Long Cycle Life – Can last 2000+ charge–discharge cycles (depending on type).
• Fast Charging – Supports quick charging compared to older technologies.
• No Memory Effect – Unlike NiCd batteries, they don’t lose capacity if recharged before full discharge.
• Wide Range of Applications – Used in smartphones, laptops, EVs, medical devices, aerospace, renewable
storage.
• Environmentally Safer – No heavy metals like cadmium or mercury.
. Disadvantages of Li-ion Batteries
• High Initial Cost – More expensive than lead-acid batteries.
• Safety Concerns – Risk of overheating, fire, or explosion if damaged, overcharged, or short-circuited.
• Needs Protection Circuit – Requires Battery Management System (BMS) to control voltage, current, and
temperature.
• Limited Lifespan – Capacity decreases with age, even if not used (calendar aging).
• Sensitive to Temperature – Performance drops in very high or low temperatures.
• Recycling Challenges – Recycling process is complex and costly compared to lead-acid
Feature Lead-Acid Battery Lithium-Ion Battery
Oldest rechargeable battery (1859), Modern rechargeable battery,
Introduction widely used in vehicles and backup popular in portable devices &
systems EVs
Energy Density Low (30–50 Wh/kg) High (150–250 Wh/kg)
Weight & Size Heavy and bulky Lightweight and compact
Efficiency ~70–80% ~90–95%
Cycle Life (charge– 2000–5000 cycles (depending on
500–1000 cycles (with maintenance)
discharge cycles) type)
1–4 hours (fast charging
Charging Time 8–16 hours (slow charging)
possible)
Requires maintenance (topping up
Maintenance Maintenance-free
water in flooded type)
Cost Low initial cost Higher initial cost
Self-Discharge Rate ~5% per month ~2–3% per month
Sensitive to
Can release hydrogen gas, risk of
Safety overcharging/overheating (needs
acid leakage
protection circuits)
Cars, UPS, emergency lighting, Smartphones, laptops, power
Applications
renewable energy storage tools, electric vehicles, drones
Cadmium in Batteries
Cadmium is mainly used in Nickel–Cadmium (Ni-Cd) rechargeable batteries, one of the earliest widely used
secondary (rechargeable) battery systems.
How it works:
• Anode (negative electrode): Cadmium (Cd)
• Cathode (positive electrode): Nickel oxide hydroxide (NiOOH)
• Electrolyte: Potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution
• During discharge, cadmium is oxidized to cadmium hydroxide (Cd(OH)₂), releasing electrons that
power the device.
Cadmium in Batteries
Advantages of Ni-Cd batteries:
• Rechargeable with a long cycle life
• Can deliver high discharge currents (useful in power tools, cameras, emergency lighting)
• Robust performance at low temperatures
• Disadvantages:
• Toxicity: Cadmium is highly poisonous to humans and the environment
• Memory effect (voltage depression): If not fully discharged before recharging, the battery “remembers”
a lower capacity
• Lower energy density compared to modern lithium-ion batteries
• Current status:
Because of cadmium’s toxicity and environmental risks, Ni-Cd batteries are being phased out in many
countries, replaced by Nickel–Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) and Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, though Ni-Cd is still
used in specific industrial and backup applications where durability matters.
Good battery must meet certain requirements depending on where it is used (EVs, mobiles, storage,
etc.). Requirements of a Good Battery
High Energy Density
• Stores more energy per unit weight/volume → smaller & lighter batteries.
• Important for EVs, drones, portable electronics.
High Power Density
• Ability to deliver high current when needed (e.g., for acceleration in EVs or starting a car).
Long Cycle Life
• Should withstand many charge–discharge cycles without significant capacity loss.
Safety & Stability
• Must be resistant to overheating, fire, and explosion. Stable under overcharge, deep discharge, and
mechanical stress.
Wide Operating Temperature Range
• Performs well in both hot and cold climates
• Low Self-Discharge Rate: Retains charge when not in use (important for standby applications).
• Fast Charging Capability: Ability to recharge quickly without degrading performance.
• Cost-Effectiveness: Materials and manufacturing should be affordable for large-scale adoption.
• Environmental Friendliness: Non-toxic, re-cyclable, and minimal environmental impact.
• Mechanical Durability: Resistant to vibrations, shocks, and leaks.
• In summary: A good battery should be energy-rich, safe, long-lasting, affordable, and eco-friendly
while providing consistent performance across different conditions.
EV (Electric Vehicle) battery development:
[Link] Stage (Before 2000s)
• Lead-acid batteries were the first type used in early EVs.
• Low energy density,
• Heavy, but cheap.
• Still used in some small EVs (like e-rickshaws).
• Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) came next.
• Better energy density than lead-acid.
• Used in early hybrid cars (like Toyota Prius).
• But had high cost and heat issues.
EV (Electric Vehicle) battery development:
2. Rise of Lithium-ion (2000s – Present)
• Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries became dominant.
• High energy density
• Light weight
• Longer life
• Enabled long-range EVs (Tesla popularized this)
• Improvements include:
• Better cathode materials (NMC- li ni manganese cobalt oxide, NCA- ni cobalt al oxide - , LFP- li iron
phosphate)).
• Advanced anodes (graphite, silicon mix).
• Safer electrolytes and better thermal management
EV (Electric Vehicle) battery development:
3. Current Advancements
• Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP):
• Cheaper, safer, longer cycle life.
• Used in many modern EVs (Tesla, BYD).
• High Nickel batteries (NMC/NCA):
• Higher energy density (good for long range).
• Solid-state batteries (in R&D):
• Use solid electrolyte instead of liquid.
• Promise higher energy density, faster charging, and more safety.
• Fast charging tech:
• Development of ultra-fast chargers + battery chemistries that can charge to 80% in <20 minutes
4. Future Directions
• Solid-State Batteries: Commercialization expected around 2027–2030.
• Sodium-ion batteries: Cheaper alternative to lithium (China already testing in EVs).
• Recycling & Second-life use:
• EV batteries repurposed for solar and grid storage after car life.
• Green production: Focus on reducing rare earth ( 17 chemical elements in the periodic table) and
cobalt usage
• Summary:
EV battery development has moved from lead-acid → NiMH → Lithium-ion (current standard), and is
Measuring battery performance is important to know how well a battery stores and delivers energy.
Here are the main performance parameters and how they are measured:
1. Capacity (Ah or mAh)
Definition: The total charge a battery can deliver.
Measurement: Discharge the battery at a constant current until it reaches its cutoff voltage, then multiply
current × time
Capacity (Ah)=Discharge current (A)×Time
)
[Link] (Wh)
Definition: The total amount of energy delivered.
Measurement: Integrate the product of voltage and current over the discharge time
Energy (Wh)=∫V(t)×I(t)dt
3. State of Charge (SOC, %)
Definition: How full the battery is compared to its capacity.
Measurement:
Coulomb counting (tracking charge in/out).
Voltage method (approximate, using open-circuit voltage vs SOC curve).
Impedance / model-based estimation (in smart battery systems).
4. Depth of Discharge (DoD, %)
Definition: How much of the capacity is used during discharge.
DoD=Total capacity Ah / discharged×100
5. Efficiency
• Coulombic efficiency
• Energy efficiency
6. Internal Resistance (Ω)
Definition: Opposition to current flow inside the battery.
Measurement: Apply a load step and measure the voltage drop:
7. Cycle Life
Definition: Number of charge–discharge cycles before the capacity falls below a specified value (e.g., 80%
of original).
Measurement: Repeated charge/discharge cycling test.
8. Self-Discharge Rate
Definition: Loss of charge when the battery is not in use.
Measurement: Leave battery idle and check remaining capacity after some time
9. Power Density (W/kg)
Definition: How fast a battery can deliver energy.
Measurement: Based on peak discharge current and average voltage.
Measuring battery performance
Parameter Definition Measurement Method
Discharge at constant
Capacity (Ah or mAh) Total charge a battery can deliver
current until cutoff voltage
Multiply voltage × current
Energy (Wh) Total energy output
over discharge period
Remaining charge compared to full Coulomb counting, OCV
State of Charge (SOC, %)
capacity method, model-based
Depth of Discharge (DoD, Fraction of capacity used during Measure discharged Ah vs
%) discharge rated capacity
Ratio of discharge capacity to charge
Coulombic Efficiency (%) Compare Ah in vs Ah out
capacity
Ratio of discharge energy to charge
Energy Efficiency (%) Compare Wh in vs Wh out
energy
Resistance inside battery that causes Apply load step, measure
Internal Resistance (Ω)
voltage drop voltage drop
Number of charge–discharge cycles
Cycle Life before capacity falls below threshold Continuous cycling test
(e.g., 80%)
Store battery, measure
Self-Discharge Rate Rate of capacity loss when idle remaining capacity after
time
Measure max current ×
Power Density (W/kg) How fast energy can be delivered avg voltage during
discharge