S S Rawat

STABILITY AND CONTROL

Aircraft principal axes
 STABILITY
Stable + Ability= Stability
 The stability of an aeroplane means its ability to return to some
particular condition of flight after having been slightly disturbed
from that condition without any efforts on the part of the pilot.
 The stability is sometimes called inherent stability.
 An aeroplane when disturbed, tends to return to its original position
is said to be stable.
 If it tends to move farther away from the original position, it is
unstable.
 If it tend to do neither of these and prefer to remain in its new
position is neutral stability.
 Stability in an aircraft affects two areas significantly:

Maneuverability
 It is the characteristic of an aircraft to be directed along a desired

flightpath and to withstand the stresses imposed.

Controllability
 It is the quality of the response of an aircraft to the pilot’s

command while maneuvering the aircraft.

 Type of stability
Static stability
 Only the tendency to come back in initial state

Dynamic stability
 Not only the tendency to come back in initial state but also

amplitude decay finite time

 Damping decide the dynamic stability.
CONTROLS
 Control means the power of the pilot to manoeuvre the aeroplane
into any desired position.
 It is not by any means the same thing as stability; in fact, the two
characteristics may directly oppose each other.
 The stability or control of an aeroplane in so far as it concerns
pitching about the lateral axis is called longitudinal stability or
control.
 Stability or control which concerns rolling about the longitudinal
axis is called lateral stability or control.
 Stability or control which concerns yawing about the normal axis
is called directional stability or control.
 Static stability is the initial tendency of an aircraft to return to its
original position when it's disturbed.
There are three kinds of static stability:
Positive static stability
 It is the initial tendency of the aircraft to return to the original
state of equilibrium after being disturbed.
Neutral static stability
 It is the initial tendency of the aircraft to remain in a new
condition after its equilibrium has been disturbed.
Negative static stability
 It is the initial tendency of the aircraft to continue away from the
original state of equilibrium after being disturbed.
 Dynamic stability refers to the aircraft response over time when disturbed from
a given AOA, slip, or bank.
 There are three kinds of dynamic stability:
Positive dynamic stability
 It is the motion of the displaced object decreases in amplitude and returning
towards the equilibrium state, positive dynamic stability have oscillations that
dampen out over time.
 Complete dead-beat stability which is very rarely achieved in practice.
 Stability, that is to say an oscillation which is gradually damped out.
Neutral dynamic stability
 It is when displaced the aircraft neither decreses or increses in amplitude.
Negative dynamic stability
 It is the motion of the displaced object increases and becomes more divergent
over time.
 Type of Stability according to moment about primary axis
1. Longitudinal stability

2. Lateral stability

3. Directional stability
 Horizontal Stabilizer + Elevator = Longitudinal Stability

 Vertical Stabilizer +Rudder = Directional Stability

 Aileron Control = Lateral Stability Or Banking Action.

 The three key centers
1. Center of gravity
2. Center of pressure
3. Neutral point

Center of gravity
 Points where the moment acts
 Depends only on the plane’s mass distribution not its aerodynamics.

Center of pressure
 Cp a point where resulting aerodynamic force applies depends on the model’s

aerodynamics and on the angle of attack.


 Neutral point
 Reference point for which the pitching moment does not depends on the
angle of attack aircraft is neutrally stable.
 Its totally depends only the plane’s external geometry.
 Neutral point stick fixed – not allowed the elevator float
 In pitching, for instance, stick-fixed means that the elevators are held
in their neutral position relative to the tail plane
 Whereas stick-free means that the pilot releases the control column
and allows the elevators to take up their own positions.
Aerodynamic center
 The aerodynamic center on mean aerodynamic chord where pitching
moment remain constant.
 This point remain independent to angle of attack or lift coefficient
 The stability or control of an aero plane in so far as it concerns
pitching about the lateral axis is called longitudinal stability or
control.
 In order to obtain stability in pitching, we must ensure that if the
angle of attack is temporarily increased, forces will act in such a
way as to depress the nose and thus decrease the angle of attack
once again.
 The pitching moment about the centre of gravity of the main
planes will probably have a nose-up, i.e. unstable tendency, but
that of the tail plane, with its long leverage about the centre of
gravity, will definitely have a nose-down tendency.
 If the restoring moment caused by the tail plane is greater than the
upsetting moment caused by the main planes, and possibly the
fuselage, then the aircraft will be stable.
Factors affecting longitudinal stability:
1) Location of the wing with respect to the CG.
2) Location of the horizontal tail surfaces with respect to the CG.
3) Area or size of the tail surfaces.
 The position of the centre of gravity, which must not be too back;
this is probably the most important consideration.
 The pitching moment on the main planes.
 The pitching moment on the fuselage or body of the aero plane
tend towards instability.
 The tail plane
 The tail plane area, the angle at which it is set, its aspect ratio,
and its distance from the centre of gravity.
 This is nearly always a stabilizing influence.
 The forward position of the centre of gravity and the area and
leverage of the tail plane will probably have the greatest
influence.
 A tail plane plays much the same part, though more effectively, in
providing longitudinal stability, sweep back with wash-out of
incidence towards the tips.
 LONGITUDINAL DIHEDRAL
 The tail plane is usually set at an angle less than that of the main
planes
 The angle between the chord of the tail plane and the chord of the
main planes being known as the longitudinal dihedral.
 The pitching moment (about the centre of gravity) of the main
planes will probably have a nose-up, unstable tendency
 But that of the tail plane, with its long leverage about the centre of
gravity, will definitely have a nose-down tendency.
 If the restoring moment caused by the tail plane is greater than the
upsetting moment caused by the main planes, and possibly the
fuselage, then the aircraft will be stable
 Important point
 Distance between neutral point and cg of aircraft = static margin
or stability margin

KEEL SURFACES
They maintain the restoring position of longitudinal and lateral
stability.
If the keel is ahead of CG, then longitudinal stability improves and
makes the aircraft more stable.
LATERAL STABILITY (ROLLING)
 Stability about the aircraft's longitudinal axis, which extends from the
nose of the aircraft to its tail, is called lateral stability.
 When one wing gets lower than the wing on the opposite side of the
aircraft.
 This helps to stabilize the lateral or "rolling effect"
Factors that make an aircraft laterally stable:
1. Dihedral
2. Sweepback wing
3. Keel effect
4. Weight distribution.
5. High wing and low wing form centre of gravity
6. Fin area
DIHEDRAL
 The wings on either side of the aircraft join the fuselage to form
a slight V or an angle of one to three degrees called "dihedral."
 The amount of dihedral is measured by the angle made by each
wing above a line parallel to the lateral axis.
 If the planes are inclined upwards towards the wing tips, the
dihedral is positive
 If downwards, it is negative and called anhedral.
 Dihedral involves a balance of lift created by the wings' AOA on
each side of the aircraft's longitudinal axis.
 If a momentary gust of wind forces one wing to rise and the
other to lower, the aircraft banks.
 o Dihedral angle is taken as being the angle between
each plane and the horizontal, not the total angle
DIHEDRAL between the two planes, which is really the
geometrical meaning of dihedral angle. If the
planes are inclined upwards towards the wing tips,
the dihedral is positive; if downwards, it is negative
and called anhedral.
o Once the aircraft has stopped rolling, and provided
it is still travelling straight ahead, the aerodynamic
forces will be influenced only by the airstream
passing over the aircraft. This will be identical for
both wings and so no restoring moment will result
o If, however, one wing becomes lower than the
other (Fig. 9.5), then the resultant lift on the wings
will be slightly inclined in the direction of the lower
wing, while the weight will remain vertical.
Therefore the two forces will not balance each
other and there will be a small resultant force
acting in a sideways and downwards direction. This
force is temporarily unbalanced and therefore the
aeroplane will move in the direction of this force –
i.e. it will sideslip
 When the aircraft is banked without turning, the tendency to
sideslip or slide downward toward the lowered wing occurs.
 Since the wings have dihedral, the air strikes the lower wing at a
much greater AOA than the higher wing.
 The increased AOA on the lower wing creates more lift than the
higher wing.
 Increased lift causes the lower wing to begin to rise upward.
 As the wings approach the level position, the AOA on both wings
once again are equal, causing the rolling tendency to subside.
 The effect of dihedral is to produce a rolling tendency to return
the aircraft to a laterally balanced flight condition when a
sideslip occurs.
 The restoring force may move the low wing up too far, so that
the opposite wing now goes down.
 If so, the process is repeated, decreasing with each lateral
oscillation until a balance for wings-level flight is finally
reached.
 Conversely, excessive dihedral has an adverse effect on lateral
maneuvering qualities.
 The aircraft may be so stable laterally that it resists an
intentional rolling motion.
 For this reason, aircraft that require fast roll or banking
characteristics usually have less dihedral than those designed for
less maneuverability.
SWEEPBACK
 A sweptback wing is one in which the leading edge slopes
backward.
 Sweepback is an addition to the dihedral that increases the lift
created when a wing drops from the level position.
 When a disturbance causes an aircraft with sweepback to slip or
drop a wing, the low wing presents its leading edge at an angle
that is perpendicular to the relative airflow.
 As a result, the low wing acquires more lift, rises, and the aircraft
is restored to its original flight attitude.
 Sweepback also contributes to directional stability.
HIGH WING AND LOW CENTRE OF GRAVITY
 If the wings are placed in a high position and the centre of gravity is
correspondingly low, the lateral stability can be enhanced.
 When an aircraft sideslips, the lift on the lower wing becomes greater than
that on the higher one.
KEEL EFFECT/WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION
 When the aircraft is disturbed and one wing dips, the fuselage weight acts
like a pendulum returning the airplane to its original attitude.
 Laterally stable aircraft are constructed so that the greater portion of the
keel area is above and behind the CG.
 Thus, when the aircraft slips to one side, the combination of the aircraft's
weight and the pressure of the airflow against the upper portion of the keel
area (both acting about the CG) tends to roll the aircraft back to wings
level flight.
FIN AREA
 One factor which may have considerable influence on lateral
stability is the position of the various side surfaces, such as the
fuselage, fin and rudder, and wheels.
 All these will present areas at right angles to any sideslip, so there
will be pressure upon them which, if they are high above the
centre of gravity, will tend to restore the aeroplane to an even keel
 This applies to many modern types which have a high tail plane
on top of a high fin.
DIRECTIONAL STABILITY (YAWING)
 Stability about the aircraft's vertical axis (the sideways moment) is called
yawing or directional stability.
 Yawing or directional stability is the most easily achieved stability in
aircraft design.
 The area of the vertical fin and the sides of the fuselage aft of the CG are
the prime contributors which make the aircraft act like the well known
weather vane or arrow, pointing its nose into the relative wind.
 In examining a weather vane, it can be seen that if exactly the same
amount of surface were exposed to the wind in front of the pivot point as
behind it, the forces fore and aft would be in balance and little or no
directional movement would result.
 Consequently, it is necessary to have a greater surface aft of the pivot
point than forward of it.
 Similarly, the aircraft designer must ensure positive directional stability
by making the side surface greater aft than ahead of the CG.
 To provide additional positive stability to that provided by the
fuselage, a vertical fin is added.
The fin acts similar to the feather on an arrow in maintaining straight flight.
 Like the weather vane and the arrow, the farther aft this fin is placed
and the larger its size, the greater the aircraft's directional stability.
 If an aircraft is flying in a straight line, and a sideward gust of air gives
the aircraft a slight rotation about its vertical axis (e.g., the right), the
motion is retarded and stopped by the fin because while the aircraft is
rotating to the right, the air is striking the left side of the fin at an
angle.
 This causes pressure on the left side of the fin, which resists the turning
motion and slows down the aircraft's yaw.
 In doing so, it acts somewhat like the weather vane by turning the
aircraft into the relative wind.
 The initial change in direction of the aircraft's flight path is generally
slightly behind its change of heading.
 Therefore, after a slight yawing of the aircraft to the right, there is a
brief moment when the aircraft is still moving along its original path,
but its longitudinal axis is pointed slightly to the right.
 The aircraft is then momentarily skidding sideways, and during that
moment (since it is assumed that although the yawing motion has
stopped, the excess pressure on the left side of the fin still persists)
there is necessarily a tendency for the aircraft to be turned partially
back to the left.
 There is a momentary restoring tendency caused by the fin.
 This restoring tendency is relatively slow in developing and ceases
when the aircraft stops skidding.
 When it ceases, the aircraft is flying in a direction slightly different
from the original direction.
 It will not return of its own accord to the original heading; the pilot
must reestablish the initial heading.
 A minor improvement of directional stability may be obtained through
sweepback.
 Sweepback is incorporated in the design of the wing primarily to delay
the onset of compressibility during high-speed flight.
 In lighter and slower aircraft, sweepback aids in locating the center of
pressure in the correct relationship with the CG.
 A longitudinally stable aircraft is built with the center of pressure aft of
 Because of structural reasons, aircraft designers at times can't attach
the wings to the fuselage at the exact desired point.
 If they had to mount the wings too far forward,and at right angles to
the fuselage, the center of pressure would not be far enough to the rear
to result in the desired amount of longitudinal stability.
 By buildings sweepback into the wings, however, the designers can
move the center of pressure toward the rear.
 The amount of sweepback and the position of the wings then place the
center of pressure in the correct location.
 The contribution of the wing to static directional stability is usually
small.
 The swept wing provides a stable contribution depending on the
amount of sweepback, but the contribution is relatively small when
compared with other components.
FREE DIRECTIONAL OSCILLATIONS (DUTCH ROLL)
 Dutch roll is a coupled lateral/directional oscillation that is usually
dynamically stable but is unsafe in an aircraft because of the
oscillatory nature.
 The damping of the oscillatory mode may be weak or strong
depending on the properties of the particular aircraft.
 If the aircraft has a right wing pushed down, the positive sideslip
angle corrects the wing laterally before the nose is realigned with the
relative wind.
 As the wing corrects the position, a lateral directional oscillation can
occur resulting in the nose of the aircraft making a figure eight on the
horizon as a result of two oscillations (roll and yaw), which, although
of about the same magnitude, are out of phase with each other.
 In most modern aircraft, except high-speed swept wing designs,
these free directional oscillations usually die out automatically in
very few cycles unless the air continues to be gusty or turbulent.
 Those aircraft with continuing Dutch roll tendencies are usually
equipped with gyro-stabilized yaw dampers.
 Manufacturers try to reach a midpoint between too much and too
little directional stability.
 Because it is more desirable for the aircraft to have "spiral
instability" than Dutch roll tendencies, most aircraft are designed
with that characteristic.
PASSIVE AND ACTIVE STABILITY
 The term "Passive Stability" refers to a situation in which the
vehicle is naturally (inherently) stable and does not require any
artificial stabilization systems.
 This would require positive static stability and positive dynamic
stability.
 The term "Active Stability" refers to the use of artificial
stabilizing systems to improve the handling of vehicles which do
not exhibit sufficient passive stability.
 An example of such a system would be an aircraft automatic
stabilization system (Basic Autopilot).
Yaw stability
 Stability around the vertical or normal axis Known as yaw
stability
• Axis around which the aircraft yaws vertical axis
• Controlled by Rudder
• Most easily achieved stability
• If overall stability becomes low, Fuselage-tail combination could
be stabilized by a vertical fin.
STABILITY REVIEW
CONTROLS

 Where an aeroplane is stable or unstable, it is necessary for the

pilot to be able to control it, so that he can manoeuvre it into any
desired position.
 The use of such a small control device is possible because the
flight controls are fully power operated, and require no physical
force from the pilot.
 The control surfaces are placed as far as possible away from the
centre of gravity so as to provide sufficient leverage to alter the
position of the aeroplane.
Longitudinal control
 It is provided by the elevators, i.e. flaps hinged behind the tail plane,

or movement of the whole tail plane.

Roll control
 It is provided by the ailerons, i.e. flaps hinged at the rear of the

aerofoils near each wing tip.

Directional control
 It is provided by the rudder, i.e. a vertical flap hinged to the stern post
 BALANCED CONTROLS
• Manual controls : Power controls
• Power controls : Over balancing
Centre of pressure
 If at any angle the centre of pressure is in front of the hinge it will
tend to take the control out of the pilot’s hands
Trimming tabs or Balancing tabs
 A small surface deflects in opposite to primary control surfaces.
Spring tabs
 With increase in speed it reduces voilence and doesn’t operate
without excertion of force.
MASS BALANCE

• Distribution of mass in aircraft

• Fluttering is a vibration due to high speed, change in pressure over

the surface and the elastic forces set up by the distortion of the
structure itself.

• It could best tackled by increasing the rigidity of the structure and

control-system components
CONTROL AT LOW SPEED
 During the low speeds as of landing the pilot often tend to stall his
aeroplane, which in turn becomes quite unstable
 The use of slots or flaps may postpone the stall, may help him to
obtain lift at slow speeds.
 Following devices are used for an attempt of acquiring stability:
• Large rudders
• A wash-out
• Frise ailerons
• Differential ailerons
• Slot-cum-aileron Control
• Spoiler control