Amity School of Business
Attitude Measurement & Scaling
Amity School of Business
Attitude Measurement
Attitude is defined as a predisposition to respond to an idea or object. Attitudes are composed of beliefs about the object of concern, such as its strength or economy, emotional feelings about the object, such as like dislike and a readiness of the individual to respond behaviorally to the object. An attitude is learned, stable predisposition to respond to oneself, other persons objects or issues in a consistently favorable or unfavorable way. Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain pre specified rules
2
Scaling
Amity School of Business
Scaling is the term commonly used to refer the process of measuring attitudes. It describes the procedures of assigning numbers to various degrees of opinion, attitude and other concepts. A procedure for assignment of numbers (other symbols) to a property of objects in order to impart some of the characteristics of numbers to the properties in question. Attitude Scaling is the process of assessing an attitudinal disposition using a number that represents a persons score on an attitudinal continuum ranging from an extremely favorable disposition to an extremely unfavorable one
3
Amity School of Business
Measurement Scales
Amity School of Business
Nominal Scale: A scale whose numbers
serve only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects with a strict one-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the objects. Although any information that vary degree of attitude, skills understandings etc. will not be measured successfully on nominal scale. The only permissible act is counting. E.g. No. Of players, roll numbers in the class. The statistics that can be applied on nominal scale are percentages, mode chi-square and binomial test.
5
Amity School of Business
Ordinal Scale: It is a ranking scale in
which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate the relative extent to which some characteristic is possessed. Thus it is possible to determine whether an object has more or less of characteristic than some other object, but not how much more or less. It is meaningful to calculate percentile quartile median, rank order corelation from data
6
Amity School of Business
Interval Scale: In this scale, numerically equal distances on the scale represents equal value in the characteristics being measured. Statistical techniques that may be used on interval scale data include all of those for nominal or ordinal in addition to it arithmetic mean, standard deviation, product moment co-relation can also be used. Ratio Scale: Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of measurement. Ratio scale represents the actual amount of variables. It provides the facility of a kind of comparison which is not provided by any other scale.
7
Amity School of Business
Nomina Number l assigned to runners
11
Ordinal Rank order of Third Winners Place Interval Performance Rating on 010 Scale Ratio 8.2
Second First Place Place 9.1 9.6
Time to Finish 15.2 in Seconds
14.2
13.4
8
Scaling Techniques
Amity School of Business
Arbitrary Approach: These scales are developed on adhoc basis and depends on subjective selection. Few statements or items are collected which are appropriate to a given topic. Merits of this scales are that they can be developed very easily, quickly and with relatively less expense. But there is no objective evidence that such scales measure the concept for which they have been developed.
9
Amity School of Business
Consensus Approach : Here a panel of judges evaluate the items chosen for inclusion in the instrument in terms of whether they are relevant to the topic area and unique in implication. Item Analysis Approach: Under it a number of individual items are developed into a test which is given to a group of respondents. After administering the test, the total scores are calculated for every one. Individual items are then analysed to determine which items discriminate between persons or objects with high total scores and those with low scores.
10
Amity School of Business
Cumulative Scales Approach: These are chosen on the basis of their conforming to some ranking of items with ascending and descending power. Factor Analysis: It may be constructed on the basis of Interco relations of items which indicate that a common factor accounts for the relationship between items. This relationship is typically measured through factor analysis method.
11
Amity School of Business
Scale Construction Techniques
Approach Consensus Scale Name of the scale Differential Scales (Thurstone)
Item Analysis
Factor Analysis
Summated (Likert Scale)
Factor Scales (osgoods Semantic Differential, Multi dimensional Scaling etc.)
12
Amity School of Business
Differential Scales (Thurstone type Scales): This scale is developed by using consensus approach. It is a seven-point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar labels. It has been widely used in comparing brand, product and company images, developing advertising and promotion strategies and in new product development studies.
13
Amity School of Business
Procedure for Thurstone Scale:
1)The researcher gathers a large no. of statements, twenty or more that express the viewpoint.
2) These statements are then submitted to a panel of judges, each of whom arranges them in 11 groups ranging from one extreme to another. Generally in the first pile most unfavorable issue is placed.
14
Amity School of Business
3)The sorting by each judge yields a composite position for each of the items. In case of disagreement between the judges about an item, that item is discarded. 4) For items that are retained each is given a scale value between one and eleven. 5) A final selection of statements is then made. For this purpose a sample of statements, whose scores are spread evenly from one extreme to the other is taken.
15
Amity School of Business
Likert / Summated Scale: This scale is developed by utilizing the item analysis approach wherein a particular item is evaluated. Each response is given a numerical score, indicating his agreement or disagreement, and the scores are totaled to measure the respondents attitude. Advantages are easy to construct and administer, suitable for mail, telephone or personal interviews. The major disadvantage its take much time to complete because respondents have to read each item.
16
Amity School of Business
Summated scales(or Likert Type Scale)
Strongly Agree(1)
Agree(2)
Undecided(3)
Disagree(4)
Strongly Disgree(5)
17
Amity School of Business
Procedure for Likert type Scale 1)Researcher collects a large number of statements which are relevant to attitude. 2) A trial test is administer to a number of subjects. 3) Numbers are allotted for each score. 4) Then the total score of each respondent is obtained by adding his scores that he received for separate statements. 5)Those statements having highest and lowest total scores will be identified. 6) Only those statements that correlate with the total test should be retained in the final instrument and all others must be 18 discarded from it.
Amity School of Business
Semantic Differential Scale : This scale is
developed by Chrles E. Osgood, G J Suci and P.H Tannenbaum. This scale is based on the presumption that an object can have different dimensions which can be located in multidimensional property space called a semantic space. For e.g. for analyzing candidates for leadership
Successful Progressive Active 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 Unsuccessful Regressive Passive
19
Amity School of Business
Procedure: 1) The Concept to be studied is selected on the basis of personal judgment, keeping in view the nature of problem 2) Scales are selected bearing in mind the criteria of evaluation. 3) Then a panel of judges are used to rate the various stimuli on the various selected scales.
20
Amity School of Business
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
21
Amity School of Business
Observation Method
It is one of the methods for data collection. It can be used to get both past and current information. In marketing research we can check the display positions of various products in stores, to find out how frequently the product is out of stock etc. Advantages of this method areIt enables to record the behaviour as it occurs. It can be used regardless of respondents willingness to report or not. It can be used for those who are unable to respond like infants, animals etc.
22
Amity School of Business
Limitations are Unable to observe the past or future behaviour of any person. It does not help in finding a persons attitude or opinion or knowledge on any subject matter It is very slow and unable to cover large sample of population and Inadequacies of our sense organs also distorts the observation. Distorted by observers interest, freshness and freedom from interruption.
23
Amity School of Business
Methods of observation
Structuredunstructured observation: Structured Observation is used when the research problem has been formulated precisely and the observers have been told specifically what is to be observed. Unstructured observation implies that observers are free to observe whatever they think is relevant and important. Disguised- undisguised observation : In Disguised observation, the subjects do not know that they are being observed. In Undisguised observation subject know about the observation.
24
Amity School of Business
Directindirect observation: In direct observation, the event or the behavior of a person is observed as it occurs. In Indirect observation some record of past behavior is observed, even rather the behavior itself, its effects are observed. Human- mechanical observation: In human observation trained observers are required to observe and faithfully record their observations. In Mechanical observation mechanical devices such as eye camera and audiometers are used.
25
Amity School of Business
Observation under natural settinglaboratory setting: Observations in field studies are in their natural settings and are therefore in realistic conditions Whereas in laboratory settings, enables the observer to control variables which influence the behavior of people.
26
Amity School of Business
QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD A structured technique for data collection consisting of a series of questions, to which a respondent replies. A Questionnaire is called a schedule, interview form, or measuring instrument, is a formalized set of questions for obtaining information from respondents.
27
Amity School of Business
Objectives of questionnaire
1) It must translate the information needed into a set of specific questions that the respondents can and will answer. 2) It must uplift, motivate and encourage the respondent to be involved in the interview, to cooperate and to complete the interview. 3) It should minimize response error
28
Types of Questions-
Amity School of Business
Unstructured Questions/Open-ended questions: These are the questions that respondents answer in their own words. They are also referred to as free-response or free answer questions. E.g. Who is your favorite political figure? These are good as question on a topic. Structured Questions: Questions that prespecify the set of response alternatives and the response format. A structured question could be Dichotomous (Yes/No), Multiple-choice or a scales.
29
Amity School of Business
Advantages of Questionnaires Questionnaires are very cost effective Questionnaires are easy to analyze. Questionnaires reduce bias. Answers are in respondents own words. Hard to reach respondents can also be contacted. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be more reliable.
30
Amity School of Business
Disadvantages Of Questionnaires Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires. Questionnaires are structured instruments. They allow little flexibility to the respondent with respect to response format. Interpretation of omissions is difficult. Gestures and other visual cues are not available with written questionnaires. It is difficult to know whether response is provided by the actual respondent or someone else. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
31
Amity School of Business
Questionnaire Design - General Considerations
Ask only questions that directly address the study goals. Whenever you are unsure of a question, refer to the study goals and a solution will become clear. As a general rule long questionnaires get less response than short questionnaires. . One of the most effective methods of maximizing response is to shorten the questionnaire. Formulate a plan for doing the statistical analysis during the design stage of the project. Know how every question will be analyzed and be prepared to handle missing data. Give your questionnaire a title that is short and meaningful to the respondent. A questionnaire with a title is generally perceived to be more credible than one without a title.
32
Amity School of Business
Begin with a few non-threatening and interesting items. People generally look at the first few questions before deciding whether or not to complete the questionnaire. Make them want to continue by putting interesting questions first. Use simple and direct language. The wording of a question should be simple and to the point. Do not use uncommon words or long sentences. Make items as brief as possible. Leave adequate space for respondents to make comments. Leaving space for comments will provide valuable information not captured by the response categories. Place the most important items in the first half of the questionnaire. Respondents often send back partially completed questionnaires. Hold the respondent's interest. One way to keep a questionnaire interesting is to provide variety in the type of items used. All items should flow smoothly from one to the 33 next
Amity School of Business
Projective Techniques
Also known as indirect interviewing techniques for data collection, developed by psychologists to use projections of respondents for inferring about underlying motives, urges or intentions which the respondents either resists to reveal or unable to figure out himself. In projective techniques the respondent in supplying information tends unconsciously to project his own attitudes or feeling on the subject under study. Use of these techniques require intensive specialised training.
34
Amity School of Business
Important Projective Techniques
Word association tests:Sentence completion tests :Story completion tests :Verbal projection tests :Play techniques :Quizzes and examinations :Pictorial Techniques:
Thematic Apperception test (T.A.T) Rosenzweig test Rorschach test Tomkins- Horn picture arrangement test
35
Amity School of Business
In word association, respondents are presented with a list of words, one at a time, and asked to respond to each with the first word that comes to mind. The words of interest, called test words, are interspersed throughout the list, which also contains some neutral, or filler words to disguise the purpose of the study. For example, in the department store study, some of the test words might be: location, parking, shopping, quality, and price. The respondents response to each word is recorded and responses are timed so that respondents who hesitate or reason out can be identified. Those who take long (time) or do not respond at all are judged to have an emotional involvement so high that it blocks a response. The underlying assumption of this technique is that association allows respondents to reveal their inner feelings about the topic of interest . It is often possible to classify associations as favorable, unfavorable, or neutral. 36
Perceptual MappingAmity School of Business
Perceptual mapping is a term used to describe a group of analytical techniques used to study consumer attitudes, particularly attitudes relating to perceptions and preferences. A perceptual map is a visual representation of how target customers view the competing alternatives in a Euclidean space which represents the market
For e.g.
Which brands compete most directly with each other? Which the least directly? What would be the consumers ideal combination of product attributes?
37
Amity School of Business
The map has the following characteristics: Pair-wise distances between product alternatives directly indicate how close or far apart the products are in the minds of customers A vector on the map indicates both magnitude and direction in the Euclidean space. Vectors are usually used to geometrically denote attributes of the perceptual maps The axes of the map are a special set of vectors suggesting the underlying dimensions that best characterize how customers differentiate between alternatives
38
PERCEPTUAL MAPPING
Amity School of Business
For example, if we plot the UK chocolate market, we can identify those brands which are high price and high quality. Belgium chocolates are plotted as high quality and high price, and twix is plotted as a low quality low price brand. Once completed the perceptual map could help identify where an organization could launch a new brand perhaps at the medium price and quality range. Products (brands) / companies that are positioned close to each other are seen as similar on the relevant dimensions by the consumer.
39
Amity School of Business
40
PERCEPTUAL MAPPING
Amity School of Business
Some maps plot ideal vectors. The following map displays various aspirin products as seen on the dimensions of effectiveness and gentleness. It also shows two ideal vectors. The slope of the ideal vector indicates the preferred ratio of the two dimensions by those consumers within that segment. This study indicates there is one segment that is more concerned with effectiveness than harshness, and another segment that is more interested in gentleness than strength.
41
Amity School of Business
42
Uses of Perceptual mapping Amity School of Business
Customer Analysis and Competitive Analysis
Understand the competitive market structure as perceived by customers.
Position relative to competition Select the set of competitors to compete against
Represent customers perceptions in a manner that aids communication and discussion within the organization
Product
Perceptions of a new product concept in the context of existing brands in the market
Finding the gap in the market to position the product.
43
Amity School of Business
Some of the direct uses of perceptual mapping are-
Market Segmentation- Market segments may be viewed as subspace in which consumers have similar ideal positions and perceive the brands similarly.
Product Life Cycle- By analyzing respondent perceptions at different times, researcher may be able to relate movement of the product.
44
Amity School of Business
Vendor EvaluationsIndustrial purchasing agents must choose among vendors who differ- for example, in price, delivery, reliability, technical service, and credit. Purchasing agents summarize the various characteristics to determine a specific vendor. Advertising Media Selection- Which media should be used for specific ads. This could be determined with the help of perceptual mapping
45
Amity School of Business
Limitations of Perceptual mapping
Conceptual problems- How do preferences change over the time? Product preference may change if the person is buying the product as a gift purpose. These are the conceptual problem of Perceptual mapping. Empirical problem Labeling of the various dimensions of importance to respondents is subjective and, hence, open to question. Computational problem- All analyses of the type of Perceptual mapping require computer programs.
46