Electrical materials

contents
Ohm’s law, resistivity,
classification –
metals
semiconductors (intrinsic & extrinsic-Si)
insulators
superconductors
Ohm’s Law and resistivity

One of the most important electrical characteristics of a solid material is the ease with which it transmits
an electric current. Ohm’s law relates the potential difference, V (in volts ), with the electrical resistance,
R (in ohms and the electrical current, I (in amp ). as follows:
1

This law is applicable to most but not all materials. The resistance R is the resistance of the material
through which the current is passing. The value of R is influenced by specimen configuration (size,
shape); materials properties; and for many materials is independent of current.

where l is the length (cm) of the resistor, A is the cross-sectional area (cm2) of the resistor. The ρ is the
resistivity or Electrical resistivity ([Link] or Ω.cm). From the expression for Ohm’s law and Eq. (2)
Factors affecting resistivity:
(a)Temperature
(b)Alloying
(c)Mechanical stress
(d)Age Hardening
(e)Cold Working
Conducting materials – metals – low resistivity materials :
Material having low resistivity or high conductivity are very useful for manufacturing
electrical engineering machines or equipment’s. These material used as conductors for
all kind of winding required in electrical machines, apparatus and devices. These material
are also used as conductor in transmission and distribution of electrical energy.

Required Properties in Low Resistivity or High Conductivity Conducting Material

 Highest possible conductivity (ideally zero).

 Least possible temperature coefficient of resistance (ideally zero).
 High melting point.
 High mechanical strength.
 High ductility, so that can be drawn in the form of wire easily.
 High corrosion resistance (free from oxidation).
 Solder ability, so that can be soldered easily to join the conductors.
 Low cost.
 Long life or durable.
 High flexibility.
The required properties varies with the purpose for which material is being used. Any impurity whether
metallic or non metallic increase the resistivity of metals. Even an impurity of low resistivity will increase the
resistivity of metal. The reason behind this is that the addition of slight impurity creates imperfections in the
crystal lattice which disturb the flow of electrons through metals.

Some of low resistivity or high conductivity materials and their resistivity with temperature coefficient of
resistance are given in table below:-

Temperature
Metals Resistivity (µΩ -cm) Coefficients of Resistance (/ 0C)

Silver 1.58 0.0038

Copper 1.68 0.00386

Gold 2.21 0.0034

Aluminium 2.65 0.00429
Copper (Cu)
The extensively used, high conductivity material as conductor for electrical machines or equipment, is
copper. Malleability, weld ability and solder ability are most important properties of copper. Copper in
pure form is having good conductivity. But the conductivity of standard grade copper is reduced due
presence of impurities.
Properties:
1. Resistivity : 1.68 µΩ -cm
2. Temperature coefficient of resistance at 20oC: 0.00386 /oC
3. Melting point: 1085oC
4. Specific gravity: 8.96gm /cm3
Application
(1) Hard Drawn Copper:- It is used for high voltage underground cable, bus bars and conductors
because of its high mechanical strength.
(2) Annealed Copper:- It is soft Copper. It is used for insulated conductor in low voltage cables,
winding wires for electrical machines and transformers, flexible wires and in making coils for any
purpose.
Aluminium is an element which is a silver-white, light weight, soft, non-magnetic and ductile metal. Aluminium is the third
most abundant element (after oxygen and silicon) and most abundant metal found in earth’s crust. The main ore of
aluminium is bauxite. Aluminium is having low density, high ductility, good corrosion resistance and good conductivity, which
makes it suitable to use as electric conductor for transmission and distribution of electricity.
Properties:
1. Resistivity: 2.65 µΩ -cm
2. Temperature coefficient of resistance at 20oC: 0.00429 /oC
3. Melting point: 660oC
4. Specific gravity: 2.70 gm /cm3

Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced - It consists of a central core of steel wires surrounded by layers of
aluminum wires
superconductors
Superconductivity was discovered by Dutch Physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
in 1911 in Leiden. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1913 for his
low-temperature research. Some materials when they are cooled, below
certain temperature their resistivity get abolished means they exhibit the
infinite conductivity.
The temperature at which the metals change from normal conducting state to
superconducting state, is called critical temperature/transition temperature.
An example of superconductors, is Mercury. It becomes superconductor at 4k.
In superconducting state the materials expel the magnetic field.
Meissner effect

Walther Meissner and

Robert Ochsenfeld in 1933 by
measuring the magnetic field
distribution outside
superconducting tin and lead
samples.

A superconductor with little

or no magnetic field within it is
said to be in the Meissner state.
Application

Transportation:
• Maglev Trains: Superconducting magnets enable magnetic levitation, allowing
trains to float above the tracks and travel at high speeds with minimal friction and
energy loss.
Medical Imaging:
• Superconducting magnets in MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) machines
create strong, stable magnetic fields for high-resolution medical imaging.
Power Transmission and Energy Storage:
• Superconducting cables can transmit electricity over long distances with
minimal energy loss, offering significant efficiency gains.
Computing:
• Superconducting circuits are used in the development of quantum computers,
offering potential for faster and more powerful computation
 Magnetic Materials
Magnetic: para, dia, ferro & anti ferro magnetism, applications in storage
devices
 MAGNETIC
DIPOLE:
The ends of a magnet are where the magnetic effect is the strongest. These are
called “poles.” Each magnet has 2 poles – 1 north, 1 south.

Any two opposite poles separated by a finite distance constitute a magnetic

dipole.
 Response of materails to a magnetic field can
be different and studied in magnetism.

Magnetic field:
The space surrounding the magnet upto
which its influence felt is known as
magnetic field.
Michael Faraday

Michael Faraday's work on magnetic

fields is foundational to modern
electromagnetism and electric power
technology. His experiments
demonstrated that a changing
magnetic field could induce an electric
current and established the concept of
"lines of force" to visualize
electromagnetic fields
 • The magnetic behavior of materials can be traced to the structure of atoms.

• Bohr magneton - The strength of a magnetic moment of an electron (μB) due to

electron spin.

Origin of magnetic dipoles: (a) The spin of the electron produces a

magnetic field with a direction dependent on the quantum number ms. (b)
Electrons orbiting around the nucleus create a magnetic field around the
atom.
 Origin of magnetic moment
1. Orbital Motion - Orbital magnetic moment
2. Spin motion – Spin magnetic moment

Magnetic moment (µBM)

μ eff = μs.o = 2√S(S+1) = √n(n+2) BM

n = number of unpaired electrons

s.o = Spin only value

If there is a possibility for contribution from the orbital angular momentum, then

μ = √L(L+1) + 4S(S+1)
Magnetization, Permeability, and the Magnetic Field

□ Magnetic permeability - The ratio between inductance and magnetic field. It

is a measure of the ease with which magnetic flux lines can ‘‘flow’’ through

a material.

□ Magnetization (M) - The total magnetic moment per unit volume.

□ Magnetic susceptibility (𝝌,)- The ratio between magnetization and the

applied field.

𝝌 = M /H

H is magnetic field
 Permeability: ( µ )
The Magnetic induction B is proportional to the applied
Magnetic field intensity H.

Where µ permeability of a
medium
 Relative permeability µr

The ratio of permeability of medium to the permeability of free space is called

relative permeability µr of the solid.
 ©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

A current passing through a coil sets up a magnetic field H with a flux density B. The flux
density is higher when a magnetic core is placed within the coil.
 Magnetization

• Magnetization refers to the process of converting a non-magnetic material into

a Magnetic material.
• The intensity of Magnetization is directly related to the applied field H.
Magnetic susceptibility measures a material's ability to become magnetized in response to an
external magnetic field, defined as the ratio of the material's magnetization (M) to the applied
magnetic field intensity (H).
✔ Every substance is formed from an assembly of atoms which can be either non-
magnetic or magnetic.

The magnetic materials are classified into five groups depending on their response
to the magnetic field.

1. Diamagnetic Materials
2. Paramagnetic Materials
3. Ferromagnetic Materials
4. Antiferromagnetic Materials

5. Ferrimagnetic Materials
 DIAMAGNETISM

✔ Diamagnetism characterizes the substances that have only non-magnetic atoms.

These don’t have unpaired electrons.

✔ Origin:

• Diamagnetism is associated with orbital motion of filled ( paired) electrons .

• Due to different orientations of various orbits of an atom, the net magnetic

moment is zero in diamagnetic materials.

• When an external field is applied the motion of electrons in their orbits changes
resulting in induced magnetic moment in a direction opposite to the direction of
applied field.
✔ The magnetization induced by the applied magnetic field is very
weak and the magnetic lines of force are repelled.

✔ This magnetism also exists in substances with magnetic atoms, but

very weak and completely masked by the contribution of magnetic
atoms.

✔ Relative permeability is slightly less than unity.

✔ The magnetic susceptibility is independent of applied magnetic

field strength.
 Magnitude of Temperature dependence Examples
susceptibility

Small & negative Independent Organic materials,

light elements

Intermediate & Below 20K varies with field and Alkali earhs,
negative temperature Bismuth

Large & Negative Exists only below critical Superconducting

temperature (Meissner effect) materials
 PARAMAGNETISM

✔ Paramagnetic materials consists of magnetic atoms that posses unpaired

electrons oriented at random on different atoms.

✔ Origin

These unpaired spins may interact with each other leading to

cooperative phenomenon like ferromagnetism
▪ When the shells are unfilled there is net magnetic moment.
▪ In the absence of the external field the net moments of the atoms are arranged in
random directions because of thermal fluctuations. Hence there is no
magnetization.
▪ When external magnetic field is applied, there is tendency for the dipoles to align
with the field giving rise to an induced positive dipole moment.
▪ The induced magnetism is the source for paramagnetic behaviour.
✔ Paramagnetic susceptibility is small and positive and is independent
of applied field strength.
✔ Spin alignment is random.

Magnitude of Temperature dependence Examples

susceptibility

Small & positive Dependence Alkali metals,

transition
Curie law C- Curie
metals, rare
earths
constant
 FERROMAGNETISM

 External field: Even in the absence of external applied field, some substances
exhibit strong magnetization due to unpaired electrons interacting cooperatively.

 Spontaneous magnetization: This is due to a special form of interaction

called exchange coupling between adjacent atoms that results in spontaneous
magnetization of the substance.

 Alignment: When placed inside a magnetic field, it attracts the magnetic lines
of force very strongly.

 Curie temperature: Each ferromagnetic material has a characteristic

temperature called the ferromagnetic Curie temperature θ f. Below this
temperature the spontaneous magnetization exists.
✔ Spin alignment is parallel.

✔ Ferromagnetic materials exhibit Hysteresis.

✔ They Consists of a number of small regions which are called
domains.
Magnitude of Temperature dependence Examples
susceptibility

Very large & Fe, Co, Ni,

positive Gd
For T>θf paramagnetic behavior
For T<θf ferromagnetic behavior
 ANTI-FERROMAGNETISM

✔ Antiferromagnetism macroscopically similar to paramagnetism, is a weak form of

magnetism.

✔ In certain materials when the distance between the interacting atoms is small, the
exchange forces produce a tendency for antiparallel alignment of electron spins of
neighboring atoms.

✔ The magnetic susceptibility increase with the increase of temperature and reaches
maximum at a certain temperature. This temperature is known as Neel
temperature (TN). Above this temperature the susceptibility again decreases.
Spins are aligned
antiparallel

Magnitude of Temperature dependence Examples

susceptibility

small & positive when T>TN NiO, MnO

when T<TN
 FERRIMAGNETISM
 This is a special case of antiferromagnetism.

 The net magnetization of magnetic sublattices is not zero, since antiparallel

moments are of different magnitudes.

 Hence ferrimagnetic materials possesses a net magnetic moment.

 This moment disappears above a Curie temperature analogous to the Neel

temperature.

 Above TC, thermal energy randomizes the individual magnetic moments and the

material becomes paramagnetic.

✔ Ferrimagnetic domains become magnetic bubbles to act as memory elements.

✔ Spin alignment is antiparallel of different magnitudes.

Magnitude of Temperature dependence Examples

susceptibility

Very large & when T>TN Ferrites

positive
when T<TN behaves as
paramagnetic material
TC and TN values of some elements
Magnetic susceptibility vs T plots
Inverse susceptibility vs T for different behaviour
 Ferromagnetism (FM)

❑ Ferromagnetism, Antiferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism involve no new types of magnetic

moments; but involve the way the magnetic moments are coupled (arranged).

❑ Two important ways of understanding ferromagnetism in metals are:

(i) assuming that moments are localized to atoms,
(ii) using the band structure of metals (giving rise to itinerant electrons).
The former is conceptually easier and has been assumed in the 'molecular field theory' and
the Heisenberg's approach. It should be noted right at the outset that even in metals (e.g.
Fe), most of the electrons behave as if they are 'localized' and the number of itinerant
electrons could be a small number.
⮚ In Fe there are 8 valence electrons which occupy the (3d + 4s) bands. Out of these 8
electrons only ~0.95 in the 4s band are 'truly' free/itinerant and remaining ~7.05 are occupy
the 'localized' 3d band.
Mechanism of ferro and antiferro magnetic ordering–super exchange

 In individual moments of ions with unpaired electrons (magnetic dipoles) are oriented at
random. On application of magnetic field partial alignment occurs.

 In ferro and anti ferro state magnetic diploes (unpaired electrons) align spontaneously due to
the positive energy of interaction between the spins. The origin of this cooperative interaction
is quantum mechanical.

 One mechanism that leads to antiferromagnetism in NiO is through super exchange.

 The singly occupied electrons in dz2 and dx2-y2 orbitals of a Ni2+ ion couples antiferro -
magnetically with that on neighboring Ni2+ through the p orbital of the oxide ion. This is the
super exchange
 Hysteresis

The striking property of Ferro Magnetic materials is the relation between

Magnetization and the strength of Magnetic field. This property is called Hysteresis.

Ferromagnets have a domain structure and within each domain the spins are Parallel . In the
saturation magnetization conditions different domains have Same orientation.
 Saturation
P Magnetization
Ms
Residual
Magnetization Mr Q

-Hs R
o Hs
Coercivity Hc

Hard magnetic
materials –
Large hysteresis loop ex
S Alnico alloy
-Ms Soft magnetic materials – small
Ferro Magnetic hysterisis loop ex ferrous nickel Alloy
Material
 If we start with no Magnetized specimen
 (M= 0) with the increasing values of magnetizing field H.

 The Magnetization of the specimen increases from zero to higher values and attains
its maximum value at a point P, at this point the Magnetization referred as
Saturation Magnetization.

 When we increase Magnetic field H there is no further increment in Magnetic

moment.

 When we decrease Magnetic field H to Zero, the Magnetization M attains point Q.


 Further if we increase the Magnetic field from zero to negative values, the
Magnetization of material becomes zero at a point R, at that point the Magnetic
field Hc is referred as Coercivity of the specimen.

 If we increase Magnetic field H in reverse direction Magnetization of material

reaches its peak value at a points S.

 On reversing the polarities of Magnetic field and increasing its strength the
Magnetization slowly decreases first to residual value then to zero and finally
increases to saturation state and touches the original saturation curve.

 The area of loop indicates the amount of energy wasted in one cycle of
operation.
 Applications of Magnetic
Materials
□ Soft Magnetic Materials - Ferromagnetic materials are often used to enhance

the magnetic flux density (B) produced when an electric current is passed through

the material. Applications include cores for electromagnets, electric motors,

transformers, generators, and other electrical equipment.

□ Data Storage Materials - Magnetic materials are used for data storage.

□ Permanent Magnets - Magnetic materials are used to make strong permanent

magnets
Soft magnetic materials have low
coercivity.
Magnetic oxides have significant applications in memory storage, particularly in non-volatile
memory technologies like hard disk drives (HDDs) and magnetic random access memory
(MRAM). Their ability to retain magnetization even when power is removed makes them suitable
for persistent data storage.

MgFe2O4 ferrites are used in transformer core, magnetic recording and Information storage
devices.

For cassettes, tapes and floppy disks, sound data are recorded as variations in the amount of
magnetisation on the surface of a recording medium, which is usually either a composite consisting
of a polymer film embedded with tiny particles of magnetic CrO2 or γ-Fe2O3, or a thin film of
magnetic material deposited on a substrate. Each particle or domain can be magnetized in either of
two directions, representing 0 or 1. The read–write recording head is a tiny electromagnet of a soft
material, such as MnZn ferrite, Schematic- next slide.

FeCr multilayers which exhibit Giant magneto resistance is used in high density Hard drives.
Mgneto resistance is change in resistance when there is an applied
Magnetic field.
For high density hard disk, the material used is SmCo5
alloy.
Functional Materials

Nanomaterials:
introduction, top-down
and bottom-up
approaches for synthesis
- bulk vs nano (gold),
quantum dots

72
 Nanomaterials: Introduction
❖ Nanomaterials are cornerstones of nanoscience and nanotechnology.

❖ Nanostructure science and technology is a broad and interdisciplinary area

of research and development activity that has been growing explosively
worldwide in the past few years.

❖ It has the potential for revolutionizing the ways in which materials and
products are created and the range and nature of functionalities that can be
accessed.

❖ It is already having a significant commercial impact, which will assuredly

increase in the future. 73
 What are nanomaterials?
❖ Nanoscale materials are defined as a set of substances where at
least one dimension is less than approximately 100 nanometers.

❖ A nanometer is one millionth of a millimeter - approximately 100,000

times smaller than the diameter of a human hair.

❖ Nanomaterials are of interest because at this scale unique optical,

magnetic, electrical, and other properties emerge.

❖ These emergent properties have the potential for great impacts in

electronics, medicine, and other fields.
74
 Nano is a millionth of a millimeter or a billionth of a meter, i.e. 1 nm = 10-9 m.

Atom is about 0.1 nanometer - 10 atoms side by side make up 1 nm.

Human hair:
50,000–100,000 nm in
diameter.

75
 Where are nanomaterials found?
 Some nanomaterials occur naturally, but of particular interest are engineered nanomaterials (EN), which are

designed for, and already being used in many commercial products and processes.

 They can be found in such things as sunscreens, cosmetics, sporting goods, stain resistant clothing, tires,

electronics, as well as many other everyday items, and are used in medicine for purposes of diagnosis,

imaging and drug delivery.

 Nanocoatings and nanocomposites are finding uses in diverse consumer products, such as windows, sports

equipment, bicycles and automobiles.

 Nanoscale titanium dioxide, for instance, is finding applications in cosmetics, sun-block creams and self-

cleaning windows, and nanoscale silica is being used as filler in a range of products, including cosmetics and

dental fillings.

 There are novel UV-blocking coatings on glass bottles which protect beverages from damage by sunlight, and

longer-lasting tennis balls using butyl-rubber/nano-clay composites. 76

 Where do we use?
Mechanical Biotechnology
Engineering /
Robotics

Advance Transportation
Materials &
NANOMATERIALS OR
Textiles
NANOTECHNOLOGY

Energy & National

Environment Security &
Defense

Medicine /
Aerospace Food and
Health
Agriculture

77
Classification: based on the number of free dimensions
0D nanomaterial: all three dimensions are in the nanoscale.
(Nanoparticles, Colloids, Quantum dots)
1D nanomaterial: one dimension beyond the nanoscale and two other dimensions in the nanoscale.
(Nanowires, Nanorods, Nanotubes & Biopolymers).
2D nanomaterial: any two dimensions can be outside of the nanoscale and one dimension in the
nanoscale. (Plate-like shapes - nanolayers, surface coatings and thin films).
3D nanomaterial: all three dimensions can be outside of the nanoscale. Made of a nanomaterials.
(nanoparticle dispersions, nanowire/ nanotube bundles & multiple nanolayers).

78
Categories of Nanomaterials

79
Why so much interest in nanomaterials?

These materials have created a high interest in recent years by virtue of their
unusual mechanical, electrical, optical and magnetic properties. Some examples
are given below:

 Nanophase ceramics are of particular interest because they are more ductile at
elevated temperatures as compared to the coarse-grained ceramics.

 Nanostructured metal-oxide (MnO2) finds application for rechargeable batteries

for cars or consumer goods

 Very small particles have special atomic structures with discrete electronic
states, which give rise to special properties in addition to the super
paramagnetism behavior.

Bulk gold Vs Nano gold (In detail) 80

Bulk vs Nano (gold)

81
 Size and shape dependent colors of Au and Ag nanoparticles
Gold NPs in Glass Silver NPs in Glass
25 nm
100 nm
Sphere
Sphere
reflected
reflected

50 nm 40 nm
Sphere Sphere
reflected reflected

100 nm
100 nm prism
Sphere reflected
reflected

82
82
 Size and shape dependent colors of Au and Ag nanoparticles

Note: nanomaterials scatter visible light rather than absorb

 Distance between particles also effects colour

83
83
 Gold : Bulk vs. Nano
Bulk Gold Nano Gold
1 Lustrous–they have a shiny surface Are never gold in colour but found in a
when polished range of colours
2 Malleable–they can be hammered, bent Size & Shape of the nanoparticles
or rolled into any desired shape determines the colour
3 Ductile–they can be drawn out into wires For example, Gold particles in glass
25 nm > red reflected
50 nm > green reflected
100 nm > orange reflected
4 Is metallic, with a yellow colour when in Are not “metals” but are semiconductors
a mass (Band gap energy = 3.4 eV)
5 Good conductors of heat and electricity Are very good catalysts
6 Generally have high densities
7 Have high melting point (~1080oC) Melts at relatively low temp (~940º C)
8 Are often hard and tough with high
tensile strength
9 Having high resistance to the stresses of
being stretched or drawn out
10 Not easily breakable
11 Inert-unaffected by air & most reagents
84
 Why Nanomaterials are different
The two main reasons why materials at the nano scale can have different properties are increased
relative surface area and new quantum effects.

• Increase of Surface area/Volume

ratio

Area = 6 x 1cm2 = 6 cm2 Area= 6 x (1/2cm)2 x 8 =12 cm2

Better catalytic
efficiency

Area= 6 x (1/3cm)2 x 27 =18 cm2

85
Small size effect (Quantum size effect)
✔ The particles are so small that electrons are not free to move about as in bulk gold. As the
movement is restricted, the particles react differently with light
Tunable fluorescent emission
✔ Electronic states are quite different from bulk. Discrete energy levels; Quantum confinement
effect occurs, increases the energy gap between energy levels leading to metal to
semiconductor to insulator transition.
Quantum confinement refers to the spatial
confinement of electrons in a nanomaterial
rather than the free existence within the bulk
materials

Electron hole pairs become spatially confined

when the diameter of the particle approaches
the de Broglie wavelength of electrons in the
conduction band

The quantum confinement occurs when the

size of the particle is too small o be
comparable to the de Broglie wavelength of
the electron 86
 Small size effect: Properties
• Decreased imperfections and defects: reason for changing electrical conductivity
than bulk matter. etc.

• This more structural perfection in the nanomaterials improves their mechanical

properties (increases mechanical strength e.g. hardness, toughness etc.).

• Increased paramagnetism and supermagnetism behaviour Magnetic Property

changes

• Due to smaller size, permeability through the biological membrane Increases

Biological Property

87
 Top-down and bottom-up approaches
for synthesis
Top-down
• Involves breaking down larger pieces of material to create nanostructures. This approach
is good for producing structures with long-range order and for making macroscopic
connections.

Bottom-up
• Involves assembling single atoms and molecules into larger nanostructures. This
approach is best suited for assembly and establishing short-range order at nanoscale
dimensions

• For example, in the top-down approach to produce nanosilver, a bulk piece of material is
mechanically ground. In the bottom-up approach, chemical and biological methods are
used to make nanostructures and nanoparticles.
88
 Bulk

Powder

(Clusters)

89
Mechanical Milling method
 Mechanical milling is a cost-effective method for producing materials at the nanoscale
level from bulk materials.

 Mechanical milling is an effective method for producing blends of different phases, and it
is helpful in the production of nanocomposites.

 Mechanical milling is used to produce oxide- and carbide-strengthened aluminum

alloys, aluminum/nickel/magnesium/copper-based nanoalloys, and many other
nanocomposite materials

 Ball-milled carbon nanomaterials are considered a novel class of nanomaterial, providing

the opportunity to satisfy environmental remediation, energy storage, and energy90
conversion demands
 Mechanical milling, also known as mechanical alloying or mechanochemical synthesis,
is a "top-down" method for producing nanomaterials by physically reducing the size of bulk
materials through grinding and impacting.

 This technique involves using high-energy mills to repeatedly impact and deform powder
materials, leading to size reduction and the creation of new phases

 To produce nonequilibrium structures including nanocrystalline, amorphous and

quasicrystalline materials

 Powders diameters of about 50 µm with a number of hardened steel or tungsten carbide

(WC) coated balls in a sealed container which is shaken or violently agitated. The most
effective ratio for the ball to powder mass is 5 : 10.

 Different millers are tumbler mills, attrition mills, shaker mills, vibratory mills, planetary mills
etc

 Shaker mills (e.g. SPEX model 8000) uses small batches of powder (approximately 10 cm 3
is sufficient
91
❖ Advantage: High production rates

❖ Disadvantages
 Severe plastic deformation associated with mechanical attrition due to generation
of high temp in the interphase, 100 to 200 oC.
 Difficulty in broken down to the required particle size
 Contamination by the milling tools (Fe) and atmosphere (trace elements of O2, N2
in rare gases) can be a problem (inert condition necessary like Glove Box)(Fe
<1-2% and Trace elements<300 ppm)
 Protective coating to reduce milling tools contamination (MTC) increases cost of
the process
92
 Working duration (>30 h) increases MTC (>10%)
93
Schematic representation of the principle of mechanical milling

WC coated
50 µm powder ball

94
 Sol-gel method (Bottom up approach)
❖ This method is used for the development of various kinds of high-quality
metal-oxide-based nanomaterials.

❖ This method is called a sol–gel method as during the synthesis of the metal-
oxide nanoparticles, the liquid precursor is transformed to a sol, and the sol
is ultimately converted into a network structure that is called a gel.

❖ Conventional precursors for the generation of nanomaterials using the sol–

gel method are metal alkoxides.

❖ The synthesis process of nanoparticles via the sol–gel method can be

completed in several steps.

❖ In the first step, the hydrolysis of the metal oxide takes place in water or with
the assistance of alcohol to form a sol. 95
1. In the next step, condensation takes place, resulting in an increase in the
solvent viscosity to form porous structures that are left to age.

2. During the condensation or polycondensation process, hydroxo- (M–OH–M)

or oxo- (M–O–M) bridges form, resulting in metal–hydroxo- or metal–oxo-
polymer formation in solution.

3. During the aging process, polycondensation continues, with changes to the

structure, properties, and porosity. During aging, the porosity decreases,
and the distance between the colloidal particles increases.

4. After the aging process, drying takes place, in which water and organic
solvents are removed from the gel.

5. Lastly, calcination is performed to achieve nanoparticles.

96
98
99
❖ Advantages
• Synthesizing nonmetallic inorganic materials like glasses, glass ceramics or
ceramic materials at very low temperatures compared to melting glass or firing
ceramics
• Monosized nanoparticles possible by this bottom up approach.
❖ Disadvantages
• Controlling the growth of the particles and then stopping the newly formed
particles from agglomerating.
• Difficult to ensure complete reaction so that no unwanted reactant is left on the
product.
• Completely removal of any growth aids.
100
• Also production rates of nanopowders are very slow by this process
 Quantum Dots
• Quantum dots are semiconductor particles with typical diameter of 2–10 nm.
They are so named because, due to their nanoscale size, quantum effects play a
significant part in their light emitting properties.

• Quantum dots emit light via this mechanism: under external stimulus, some of
the electrons of the dot material absorb sufficient energy to escape their atomic
orbit. This creates a conductance region in which the electrons can move
through the material, effectively conducting electricity.

• As these electrons drop back into atomic orbit, energy is released in the form of
light, the color of which depends on the amount of energy released.

• Examples: cadmium selenide (CdSe), cadmium sulfide (CdS), and indium

phosphide (InP) 101
102
 QDs contain 100 to 1000 electrons and are 2 to 10 nanometers in diameter, or 10 to 50
atoms.

Changing the band gap of semiconductors is the most attractive due to fundamental and
technological importance.

Widely tunable bandgap semiconductor are considered materials for new generation flat
panel display photovoltaic, optoelectronic devices, lasers, sensors, photon bandgap
devices, etc.

• Properties ofcoefficient
High extinction QDs
• High electron mobility
• Bandwidth and position adjustment
• Solution Process capabilities
103
 The release of confinement energy is a key property of a
quantum dot, which explains the positive relationship between
the QD size and the frequency of the light it emits.

Unlike bulk semiconductors, which have continuous energy

levels within the bands, the quantum confinement effect
Schrödinger:
creates a large band gap with observed discrete energy levels.
electrons in confined And because of this quantized band gap, a quantum dot can
systemsquantized energy
occupy emit light at a very constant wavelength, which can be fine-
levels tuned by changing the size of the quantum dots (or in other
words, changing the energy levels).
104
• Because of the dots’ small size, the amount of energy released is relatively consistent
from electron to electron, yielding emissions of a single color.
• The color is entirely dependent upon the size of the dot, with larger dots (e.g., 5-6 nm)
providing lower energy emissions (i.e., reds and oranges) and smaller dots (e.g., 2-3
nm) providing higher energy emissions (i.e., blues and violets).
• This property is sometimes referred to as “quantum confinement,” indicating that
constraints at the atomic level are predominant.

Quantum dot emissions from violet to deep red

105
 Emission properties of Quantum Dots

1. Band gap decreases as the QDs size increases

2. Emission wavelength becomes red shifted with increase in size of QDs

106
 Synthetic Procedures of Quantum Dots
1. High temperature synthesis

2. Hydrothermal synthesis 4. Ultrasonication synthesis

3. Microwave synthesis
 Applications:
Displays:
Quantum dots are used in displays to create brighter, more vibrant colors, particularly in QD-
OLED TVs
Solar Cells:
Quantum dots can enhance the efficiency of solar cells by absorbing a wider range of light
wavelengths
Biomedical Imaging:
Their tunable emission makes them useful for imaging tissues and cells, aiding in
diagnostics and drug delivery.
Solid-State Lighting:
Quantum dots can be used to create more energy-efficient and colorful lighting solutions
Other applications
Quantum dots are also being explored for use in sensors, lasers, quantum computing, and
other areas of research.

108
 Quantum Dots and applications
Quantum dots (QDs) are semiconductor particles of few nanometers (<10 nm) in size, having
optical and electronic properties that differ from larger particles.

5 nm

Cancer cell imaging Metal ions sensing Light emitting diode

Liquid Coolants
 Liquid Coolants
• Types of coolants
• Thermal Conductivity
• Applications
 What are Coolants?
• Coolants are fluids that run across an engine to absorb the
heat and carry it to the radiator where it can be cooled and
recycled. Coolants, cool machinery that produces heat
during operation.
• Electronics, especially miniature electronics, require cooling
because the chips are highly power-dense, and they can
generate heat flux of up to 1000 W/cm2.
• High power density leads to an increase in heat generation,
which can bring down the performance of the engine/device.
 Coolants are Everywhere
• Automobiles
• HVAC systems
• Home air-conditioners
• Computers
• Supercomputers
• Data centers
• Miniature electronics
• Military devices
• Mobile devices
Examples of Cooling Systems

[Link]
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Thermal Conductivity
 Requirements for Coolants
• Thermophysical properties
– Thermal conductivity, specific heat, latent heat of vaporization, surface tension,
and viscosity
• Electrical conductivity
– Water and glycol-water are highly conductive and spills may damage the
electronics
– Non-aqueous coolants are preferred when electronics are involved
• Flammability
– Coolants for electronics must be non-flammable
– Any liquid that has a flash point of <93 °C is considered flammable
– Ethanol, methanol, and benzene are all flammable
– PFC and HFE are inflammable and suitable for cooling applications
 Requirements for Coolants
• Toxicity
– Coolant should be non-toxic as leakages may happen and
harm biological organisms
– Fluorocarbons and hydrofluoroether-based coolants have low
toxicity compared to ethylene glycol-based coolants
• Material Compatibility
– Wetted surface and the coolant must be compatible to minimize
corrosion
– Copper and aluminum are preferred materials to build devices
as they have high thermal conductivity and are compatible with
most coolants
 Requirements for Coolants
• Environmental Impact
– Coolant should how low global warming potential (GWP) and
ozone layer depletion potential (ODP)
– Perflouoro carbon based coolants have high GWP but zero
ODP
– Hydrofluoroether based coolants have low GWP and zero ODP
• Cost
– Coolants based on water are usually low-cost, but addition of
antifreee, glycols and anti-corrosion materials may increase the
cost
 Classification of Coolants
• Aqueous coolants
– Water has a good thermal conductivity, high specific heat, high
latent heat of vaporization, and low viscosity
– It is a low-risk coolant
– Water is compatible with most materials
– Freezing temperature of water makes it unsuitable in certain
conditions
– In such cases, additives such as glycol help lower the freezing
point
– Water – NaCl or water-CaCl2 have low FP
 Classification of Coolants
• Deionized water
– Tap water contains minerals and pathogens
– Deionized water is less corrosive than tap water
– One should add corrosion inhibitors even to deionized water
because exposure to air can make it corrosive
– Common corrosion inhibitors are: phosphates, tolytriazole, and
2-ethyl hexanoic acid.
• Water-glycol solutions
– Water-ethylene glycol and water-propylene glycol have low
freezing point compared to water
– High thermal conductivity, boiling point, specific heat, and
boiling point
 Classification of Coolants
• Water potassium formate/acetate solutions
– Less corrosive compared to water-NaCl or water-CaCl 2
– Their low freezing point (-70 C) is ideal for many applications
– Food, beverage, chemical and pharmaceutical industries use
these solutions.
 Classification of Coolants
• Dielectric Coolants
– High electrical conductivity of water restricts direct usage in
contact with chips and circuits.
– Data centers use these coolants in immersion cooling or direct-
to-chip cooling
 Thermal Conductivity Measurements
The current methods developed for thermal conductivity
measurements are static methods and can be divided in
Steady State Methods and Transient State Methods to
avoid convective heat transfer in liquid.
Steady State Methods:
the parallel plane and coaxial cylinders methods
Transient State Methods: the transient hot wire, the
transient plane source theory, the temperature oscillation
method, the laser flash method and the 3ω method
 Thermal Conductivity Measurements

[Link]
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• [Link]
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