Resistors

• Resistors are widely used in power equipment, electronic circuits

• Their application can be categorised on the basis of power loss
• Typically a resistor should have very low temperature coefficient
• Resistors are mainly two types: carbon made and wire wound type
Molded type carbon resistor
Insulated Molded and Film type
Metallic oxide resistors
• When a stanic chloride solution is sprayed on ceramic of glass surface,
under intense heat an oxide layer is produced which is conducting
• Antimonly chloride solution is added on that oxide layer
No oxidation
Higher operating temperature
Easy soldering
Low temperature coefficient
Wire wound resistance

The resistance material is 80% Nickel

and 20% Chromium

 Open Wound
 Cement Coated
 Lacquered (Coated with varnish)
 Vitreous enamel
Thermistors
Widely used as temperature sensor

Nickel/manganese/copper oxide

Can have a temperature coefficient

-5%/°C to -60%/°C
PTC Thermistor
• TC stands for "Positive Temperature Coefficient". PTC thermistors are resistors with a positive
temperature coefficient, which means that the resistance increases with increasing
temperature.

• PTC thermistors are divided into two groups based on the materials used, their structure, and
the manufacturing process. The first group of PTC thermistors is comprised of silistors, which
use silicon as the semiconducting material. They are used as PTC temperature sensors for
their linear characteristic.

• The second group is the switching type PTC thermistor. The switching type PTC thermistor has
a highly nonlinear resistance-temperature curve. When the switching type PTC thermistor is
heated, the resistance starts to decrease at first, until a certain critical temperature is
reached. As the temperature is further increased above that critical value, the resistance
increases dramatically. This type of PTC thermistors is widely used in PTC heaters, sensors etc.
PTC Thermistor
Varistor

Zic Oxide, Copper Oxide,

Copper sulphide materials
are used as varistors

I=A*E^n
Carbon type or wire-wound type
Resistance varies linearly for carbon type
For wire wound type it can be linear or non-linear
Capacitors :paper
• Impregnated paper capacitors
• Metallized paper capacitors
Mica Capacitors
There are two types of mica capacitors: clamped mica capacitors
and silver mica capacitors. Clamped mica capacitors are now
considered obsolete due to their inferior characteristics. Silver mica
capacitors are used instead. They are made by sandwiching mica
sheets coated with metal on both sides. This assembly is then
encased in epoxy in order to protect it from the environment. Mica
capacitors are generally used when the design calls for stable,
reliable capacitors of relatively small values. They are low-loss
capacitors, which allow them to be used at high frequencies, and
their value does not change much over time.
Advantages and charactersitics
• Tolerance 1%
• Temperature Coefficient (50ppm/degree C)
• Power factor 0.00003 at 1MHz
• Permittivity 7
• Can be used at high temperatures(upto 150 degree C)
• High Voltage application 100-1000v
• Typically used in RF circuits
• The construction of silver mica capacitors is relatively simple. Old clamped mica
capacitors used thin sheets of mica layered with thin sheets of silver. These
layers were clamped and electrodes were added. However, due to physical
imperfections in both mica and silver layers, there were small air gaps present
which limited the precision of clamped mica capacitors. Additionally, those air
gaps could introduce problems due to mechanical stresses and the capacitance
value would change over time
• Ceramics or epoxy resins are used as encapsulation material in order to protect
the silver-mica capacitor from outside effects such as moisture
• Silver mica capacitors have a relatively small capacitance value: usually between
a few pF, up to a few nF. The largest capacitance mica capacitors can reach
values of 1µF, although these are uncommon
Film Capacitors
Film capacitors are capacitors which use a thin plastic film as the dielectric.
This film is made extremely thin using a sophisticated film drawing process.
Once the film is manufactured, it may be metallized or left untreated,
depending on the needed properties of the capacitor. Electrodes are then
added and the assembly is mounted into a case which protects it from
environmental factors. They are used in many applications because of their
stability, low inductance and low cost. There are many types of film
capacitors, including polyester film, metallized film, polypropylene film,
PTFE film and polystyrene film
PTFE film capacitors, for example, are heat-resistant and used in aerospace
and military technology, while metallized polyester film capacitors are used
in applications that require long term stability at a relatively low. Cheaper
plastics are used if cost is a bigger concern than performance
Characteristics
• Voltage upto 100V
• Power factor 0.002
• Temperature normally upto 60°C
• Typical for low power applications
• The film is extremely thin, with the thickness being under 1 µm. After the film is drawn
to the desired thickness, the film is cut into ribbons. The width of the ribbons depends
on the capacity of the capacitor being produced. Two ribbons of film are wound
together into a roll, which is often pressed into an oval shape so that it can fit into a
rectangular case. This is important because rectangular components save precious
space on the printed circuit board. Electrodes are added by connecting each of the two
electrodes to one of the films. A voltage is applied to burn out any imperfections using
the self-healing property of film capacitors. The case is then sealed using silicon oil to
protect the film roll against moisture, and dipped in plastic to seal the interior.
• film capacitors are used in power electronics devices, phase shifters, X-ray flashes and
pulsed lasers, while the low power variants are used as decoupling capacitors, filters
and in A/D convertors. Other notable applications are safety capacitors,
electromagnetic interference suppression, fluorescent light ballasts and snubber
capacitors.
Ceramic Capacitor
The types of ceramic capacitors most often used in modern
electronics are the multi-layer ceramic capacitor, otherwise
named ceramic multi-layer chip capacitor (MLCC) and the
ceramic disc capacitor. MLCCs are the most produced capacitors
with a quantity of approximately 1000 billion devices per year.
They are made in SMD (surface-mounted) technology and are
widely used due to their small size. Ceramic capacitors are
usually made with very small capacitance values, typically
between 1nF and 1µF, although values up to 100µF are possible.
Ceramic capacitors are also very small in size and have a low
maximum rated voltage
Ceramic capacitors
• These are of three classes, high medium and low permittivity
• Low permittivity (7-8) ones are used in high voltage (above 500V) and
high temperarures (upto 150°C)
• Medium permittivity ones (70-80) are used at lower temperatures
(upto 110°C)
• High permittivity (above 1000) are used at room temperature
applications
 Electrolytic Capacitor
An electrolytic capacitor is a type of capacitor that uses an electrolyte
to achieve a larger capacitance than other capacitor types. An
electrolyte is a liquid or gel containing a high concentration of ions.
Almost all electrolytic capacitors are polarized, which means that the
voltage on the positive terminal must always be greater than the
voltage on the negative terminal. The benefit of large capacitance in
electrolytic capacitors comes with several drawbacks as well. Among
these drawbacks are large leakage currents, value tolerances,
equivalent series resistance and a limited lifetime. Electrolytic
capacitors can be either wet-electrolyte or solid polymer. They are
commonly made of tantalum or aluminum, although other materials
may be used. Electrolytic capacitors are found in many applications
such as power supplies, computer motherboards and many domestic
appliances. Since they are polarized, they may be used only in DC
circuits.
Characteristics
• The capacitance of electrolytic capacitors drifts from the nominal value as time
passes, and they have large tolerances, typically 20%. This means that an
aluminum electrolytic capacitor with a nominal capacitance of 47µF is expected
to have a measured value of anywhere between 37.6µF and 56.4µF. Tantalum
electrolytic capacitors can be made with tighter tolerances, but their maximum
operating voltage is lower so they cannot be always used as a direct replacement
• Due to the construction of electrolytic capacitors and the characteristics of the
electrolyte used, electrolytic capacitors must be forward biased. This means that
the positive terminal must always be at a higher voltage than the negative
terminal. If the capacitor becomes reverse-biased (if the voltage polarity on the
terminals is reversed), the insulating aluminum oxide, which acts as a dielectric,
might get damaged and start acting as a short circuit between the two capacitor
terminals.
Construction
• Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are made of two aluminum foils and
a paper spacer soaked in electrolyte. One of the two aluminum foils is
covered with an oxide layer, and that foil acts as the anode, while the
uncoated one acts as a cathode. During normal operation, the anode
must be at a positive voltage in relation to the cathode, which is why
the cathode is most commonly marked with a minus sign along the
body of the capacitor. The anode, electrolyte-soaked paper and
cathode are stacked. The stack is rolled, placed into a cylindrical
enclosure and connected to the circuit using pins.
Air capacitor
Air capacitors are capacitors which use air as their
dielectric. The simplest air capacitors are made of two
conductive plates separated by an air gap. Air
capacitors can be made in a variable or fixed
capacitance form. Fixed capacitance air capacitors are
rarely used since there are many other types with
superior characteristics. Variable air capacitors are used
more often because of their simple construction. They
are usually made of two sets of semicircular metal
plates separated by air gaps. One set is fixed and the
other is attached to a shaft which allows the user to
rotate the assembly, therefore changing the
capacitance as needed. The larger the overlap between
the two sets of plates, the higher the capacitance. The
maximum capacitance state is achieved when the
overlap between the two sets of plates is highest, while
the lowest capacitance state is achieved when there is
no overlap.
Supercapacitor
• Supercapacitors are electronic devices which are used to store extremely large amounts of
electrical charge. They are also known as double-layer capacitors or ultracapacitors.
Instead of using a conventional dielectric, supercapacitors use two mechanisms to store
electrical energy: double-layer capacitance and pseudocapacitance. Double layer
capacitance is electrostatic in origin, while pseudocapacitance is electrochemical, which
means that supercapacitors combine the workings of normal capacitors with the workings
of an ordinary battery. Capacitances achieved using this technology can be as high as
12000 F.
• While an ordinary electrostatic capacitor may have a high maximum operating voltage, the
typical maximum charge voltage of a supercapacitor lies between 2.5 and 2.7 volts.
Supercapacitors are polar devices, meaning they have to be connected to the circuit the
right way, just like electrolyte capacitors. The electrical properties of these devices,
especially their fast charge and discharge times, are very interesting for some applications,
where supercapacitors may completely replace batteries.
Characteristics
• Supercapacitors have charge and discharge times comparable to those of
ordinary capacitors. It is possible to achieve high charge and discharge currents
due to their low internal resistance. Batteries usually take up to several hours to
reach a fully charged state – a good example is a cell phone battery, while
supercapacitors can be brought to the same charge state in less than two
minutes.
• Supercapacitor batteries are safer than ordinary batteries when mistreated. While
batteries are known to explode due to excessive heating when short circuited,
supercapacitors do not heat as much due to their low internal resistance
• Supercapacitors can be charged and discharged millions of times and have a
virtually unlimited cycle life, while batteries only have a cycle life of 500 times and
higher.
Construction
• The construction of supercapacitor is similar to the construction of electrolytic
capacitors in that they consist of two foil electrodes, an electrolyte and a foil
separator. The separator is sandwiched between the electrodes and the foil is
rolled or folded into a shape, usually cylindrical or rectangular
• In order to store electrical charge, a supercapacitor uses porous materials as
separators in order to store ions in those pores at an atomic level. The most
commonly used material in modern supercapacitors is activated charcoal. The
fact that carbon is not a good insulator results in a maximum operating voltage
limited to under 3 V
• One of the most exciting materials used in supercapacitor research is graphene.
Graphene is a substance consisted of pure carbon, arranged in a planar sheet
only one atom thick. It is extremely porous, acting as an ion “sponge.
Supercapacitor
Inductor
• Inductors are components having specific degree of inductance
• They are widely used in power supplies and electronic circuits
• They are mostly air core or iron core
• The inductance value depends on
Number of turns
Cross section of core
Permeability of the core
Inductor
• The main inductor parameters are
• Rated inductance
• Rated current
• Rated voltage
• Rated frequency
• Rated temperature
Inductor
• Switching frequency
• Output power
• Size
• Environment/temperature
• cost
Air core
As the name suggests, an “Air core” inductor leverages air as
a medium to store the magnetic energy rather than utilizing
a magnetic material such as ferrite. In some instances,
inductors with an air core can be wound so the coil will be
able to support itself; in others, a ceramic or insulated
material may be employed to provide structure

Because air core inductors lack a ferromagnetic core,

numerous advantages for high frequency switching
applications exist such as high linearity, no core saturation,
and no iron losses. However, the absence of a ferromagnetic
core limits the L-I product, making it more suitable for low
power applications such as commodity electronic products,
computer devices, communication equipment, and other
consumer goods.
Iron core
• In order to realize higher inductance values, a
different core must be used with different material
properties. Iron core inductors are better at storing
magnetic energy than air core inductors as the iron
material helps amplify the inductor’s magnetic field.
This in turn allows an inductor with an iron core to
store more magnetic energy compared to an inductor
with an air core with the same number of turns
• Although an iron core does increase inductance
magnitude, the iron material exhibits high core loss at
high frequency. For this reason, iron core inductors
are typically used in applications that require higher
power levels but low frequencies such as audio
equipment, power conditioning, and inverter systems
Ferrite core
• In an increasing number of applications, power electronic systems require ever greater
power densities in smaller and smaller package sizes. In most cases, this goal is realized by
optimizing the underlying power magnetics to operate at high frequencies, thus shrinking
the size of the magnetic components. However, high frequency operation comes with its
own unique tradeoffs, as higher frequencies often lead to increased eddy current losses
due to skin and proximity effects.
• Ferrites are an ideal core material for high frequency power inductors, as they help
mitigate eddy current losses associated with other core materials such as iron. As long as
the ferrite core is held below a certain temperature known as the Curie temperature, the
core will exhibit good magnetic properties with a high intrinsic resistivity. This allows
ferrite cores to be used without additional laminating material, as would be required for
non-ferrite cores in high frequency applications.
• The ferrite is a magnetic material which content particles of iron, cobalt or nickel insert in
an insulator binder.
Ferrite core inductors
Relays
• Relays are the primary protection as well as switching devices in most of the control
processes or equipment regardless of whether they are electronic or electromechanical.
All the relays respond to one or more electrical quantities like voltage or current such that
they open or close the contacts or circuits. A relay is a switching device as it works to
isolate or change the state of an electric circuit from one state to another. These are found
in all sorts of devices. Relays allow one circuit to switch over to a second circuit that can
be completely separated from the first. There is no electrical connection inside the relay
between the two circuits – the link is magnetic and mechanical only.
• Basically a relay consists of an electromagnet coil, an armature, a spring and a series of
electrical contacts. The electromagnet coil gets power through a switch or a relay driver
and causes the armature to get connected such that the load gets the power supply. The
armature movement is caused using a spring. Thus, the relay consists of two separate
electrical circuits that are connected to each other only through a magnetic connection,
and the relay is controlled by controlling the switching of the electromagnet
Relay Operation
Reed relay
Mercury reed relay
Design of PCBs
Design of PCBs
Types of PCBs
Advantages and Disadvantages
Laminates
• Epoxy
Points to be noted:
• Phenolic Volume and surface resistivity, thermal withstand ability,
mechanical strength, easy punching and drilling without causing
• Silicon crack, corrosion due to alkali and acids
• Polyester
• Melamine
Glass based reinforcements
Properties with reinforcements
Processing of the Copper Cladded
laminate