3.

0 Introduction
Previously we had an overview of networking and management of network
and systems, where we learned about network technology and components
that need to be managed.
There are several management standards and models in existence for
managing networks, systems, and services.
We will consider the foundations that are needed to build various network
management models and protocols. We will survey the network
management standards and present the general architecture of the network
management models.
Our focus will be on network and system management aspects.
Network management is defined as management of the network comprising
nodes and links, and system management as managing system resources,
such as central processor usage, disk usage, and application processes.
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3.1 Network Management
Standards
Several network management standards exist today:
o OSI/CMIP
o SNMP/Internet (TCP/IP)
o TMN
o IEEE
o Emerging Technologies
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is truly simple as its
name indicates.
SNMP is as an industry standard. The Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) is responsible for all Internet specifications including network
management.
The managed objects are defined as scalar objects in SNMP.
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3.1 Network Management
Standards

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3.1 Network Management
Standards
The IEEE standards for Local Area Network (LAN) and
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) specifications are only
concerned with OSI layers 1 (physical) and 2 (data link).
Internet/SNMP protocols use IEEE standards for the lower
layers.
The IEEE 802.x series of specifications define the standards
for the various physical media and data link protocols. IEEE
802.1 specifications present overview, architecture, and
management.

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3.2 Network Management Models
The OSI standard network model. It is structured and it
addresses all aspects of management. The OSI network
management architectural model comprises four models:
Organization model
Information model
Communication model, and
Functional model.
Only parts of the OSI architectural model are applicable to
other models, but it helps us understand the holistic picture of
different aspects of network management.
OSI deals with all seven networking layers.
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3.2 Network Management Models
The SNMP/Internet (TCP/IP) standard IETF model.
IETF does not define architecture for the SNMP management model
explicitly. However, it does exist implicitly.
The organization, information, and communication models are
similar to OSI models.
The SNMP network management model addresses the functional
model in terms of operations, administration, and security.
SNMP-based management is widely used for campus-wide
networks, although enterprise-wide networks are also managed by
using distributed configurations of SNMP-based network
management systems (NMSs).
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 3.3 Organization Model
It describes the components of network management and
their relationships.
Network objects consist of network elements such as hosts,
hubs, bridges, routers, etc.
They can be classified into managed and unmanaged objects
or elements. The managed elements have a management
process running in them called an agent. The unmanaged
elements do not have a management process running in
them.

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3.3 Organization Model
Network domains
can be managed
locally; and a
global view of the
networks can be
monitored by a
manager of
managers (MoM).

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3.3 Organization Model
Network management systems can also be configured on a peer-to-peer relationship.
There is similarity between this and the client–server architecture where a host
serves as both a client and a server.
An example of such a situation would be two network service providers needing to
exchange management information between them.
From the user's point of view, the information traverses both networks and needs to
be monitored end-to-end.

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3.4 Information Model
 An information model is concerned with the
structure and storage of information.
 The representation of objects and The manager
information that are relevant to their has both the
management forms the management management
information model. database
 Information on network components is (MDB) and the
passed between the agent and management MIB
processes.
 The information model specifies the
information base (MIB – Management
Information Base) to describe managed
objects and the relationship between
managed objects.
 Structure of Management
Information defines the syntax and
semantics of management information

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3.4 Information Model
The MIB associated with an agent is called an agent MIB and the MIB
associated with a manager is designated as the manager MIB.
The manager MIB consists of information on all the network components
that it manages; whereas the MIB associated with an agent process
needs to know only its local information, its MIB view.
The representation of objects and information that are relevant to their
management forms the management information model.
The MDB is a real database and contains the measured or
administratively configured value of the elements of the network.
On the other hand, the MIB is a virtual database and contains the
information necessary for processes to exchange information among
themselves.

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3.4 Information Model
Examples of information that can be stored in the
MIB.
o Network Elements: hubs, bridges, routers, transmission
facilities, etc.
o Software Processes: programs, algorithms, protocol
functions, databases, etc.
o Administrative Information: contact person, account
number, etc.
In fact, any type of information could be included as
an object in the MIB.

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3.4.1 Management Information
Tree
The managed objects are uniquely defined by a tree
structure specified by the OSI model and are used in the
Internet model.
Management Information Tree (MIT) is the generic
representation of the tree.
There is a root node and well-defined nodes underneath each
node at different levels, designated as Level 1, Level 2, etc.
Each managed object occupies a node in the tree.
In the OSI model, the managed objects are defined by a
containment tree representing the MIT.

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3.4.1 Management Information
Tree

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3.5 Communication Model
Management data are communicated between agent
and manager processes, as well as between manager
processes.
Three aspects need to be addressed in the
communication of information between two entities:
o transport medium of message exchange (transport
protocol),
o message format of communication (application protocol),
o and the actual message (commands and responses).

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3.6 Abstract Syntax Notation
The SMI (Structure of Management Information) needs to be
specified syntactically and semantically.
For successful communication among systems, it is necessary
to agree upon a formalized set of rules on the structure and
meaning of the language of communication. In other words,
agree upon the syntax and semantics of the language.
One such format is an old and well-proven format, Abstract
Syntax Notation One, ASN.1.
ASN.1 is a formal language developed jointly by CCITT (now
ITU-T) and ISO for use with application layers for data transfer
between systems.

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3.6.1 Terminology, Symbols, and
Conventions
ASN.1 syntax is based on the Backus
system and uses the formal syntax language
and grammar of Backus–Nauer Form (BNF),
which looks like:
<name> ::= <definition>
where the notation “<entity>” denotes an
“entity” and the symbol “::=” represents
“defined as.”
Let us illustrate the Backus system by
developing a simple arithmetic expression
<SAE> [Maurer, 1977]:
We can define an entity <digit> as
<digit> ::= 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
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where the symbol “|” represent “or.” We can
also define an operation entity <op> as
<op> ::= + | – | x | /
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3.6.1 Terminology, Symbols, and
Conventions
A group of assignments makes up an ASN.1 module. For
example, a name consists of first, middle, and last names, and
they can be specified as:
• person-name Person-Name::=
{
first “John”,
middle “I”,
last “Smith”
}
o Here person-name, beginning with lowercase letters, is the name of
the data type. Person-Name is a module and begins with capital
letters. The module comprises three assignments, whose names are
first, middle, and last with values “John,” “I,” and “Smith.”
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3.7 Encoding Structure
The ASN.1 syntax containing the management
information is encoded using the BER (Basic Encoding
Rules) defined for the transfer syntax.
The ASCII text data are converted to bit-oriented
data.
We will describe one specific encoding structure,
called TLV, denoting Type, Length, and Value
components of the structure.

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3.7 Encoding Structure
The type has three subcomponents—class, P/C, and tag
number. P/C specifies whether the structure is primitive,
i.e., a simple type or a construct.
The length specifies the length of the value field in the
number of octets.
The value field is encoded based on the data type. It is a
multiple number of octets. The simplest data type value to
encode is an OCTET STRING. An octet string of ‘0C1B’H (the
string is designated with apostrophes on both sides and an
H denoting hexadecimal notation) would look like
• 00001100 00011011

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3.9 Macros
The data types and values that we have so far
discussed use ASN.1 notation of syntax directly
and explicitly.
ASN.1 language permits extension of this
capability to define new data types and values
by defining ASN.1 macros.
The ASN.1 macros also facilitate grouping of
instances of an object or concisely defining
various characteristics associated with an object.
The keyword for a macro is all in capital letters.
TYPE NOTATION defines the syntax of the new
types and VALUE NOTATION defines the syntax of
the new values.
The auxiliary assignments define and describe
any new types identified.

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3.9 Functional Model
The functional model component of an OSI model
addresses user-oriented applications. They are
formally specified in the OSI model and are shown in
Figure 3.22.
The model consists of five models:
o configuration management,
o fault management,
o performance management,
o security management, and
o accounting management.

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