Microproc
essor
Concepts
Microproc
essor
- is the brain of computer, which does all the
work. It is a computer processor that
incorporates all the functions of CPU (Central
Processing Unit) on a single IC (Integrated
Circuit) or at the most a few ICs.
-Microprocessors were first introduced in early
1970s. 4004 was the first general purpose
microprocessor used by Intel in building
personal computers. Arrival of low cost
general purpose microprocessors has been
instrumental in development of modern
society the way it has.
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Microprocessors
Characteristics
1. Clock Speed
- Every microprocessor has an internal clock that
regulates the speed at which it executes instructions
and also synchronizes it with other components. BRAND NAME
The speed at which the microprocessor executes
instructions is called clock speed. Clock speeds are
measured in MHz or GHz where 1 MHz means 1
million cycles per second whereas 1 GHz equals to 1
billion cycles per second. Here cycle refers to single
electric signal cycle.
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Microprocessors
2. Word Size
Characteristics
- Number of bits that can be processed by a processor in
a single instruction is called its word size. Word size
determines the amount of RAM that can be accessed BRAND NAME
at one go and total number of pins on the
microprocessor. Total number of input and output
pins in turn determines the architecture of the
microprocessor.
- First commercial microprocessor Intel 4004 was a 4-bit
processor. It had 4 input pins and 4 output pins.
Number of output pins is always equal to the
number of input pins. Currently most
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microprocessors use 32-bit or 64-bit architecture.
Microprocessors
3. Instruction Set
Characteristics
- A command given to a digital machine to
perform an operation on a piece of data is BRAND NAME
called an INSTRUCTION. Basic set of
machine level instructions that a
microprocessor is designed to execute is
called its INSTRUCTION SET.
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These instructions do
carry out these types of
1. Data transfer
operations
2. −
Arithmetic operations BRAND NAME
3. Logical operations
4. Control flow
5. Input/output and machine
control
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Microprocessor Components
MICROPROCESSOR
COMPONENTS
- Compared to the first
microprocessors, today’s
processors are very small but
still they have these basic
parts right from the first
model :
o CPU
o BUS
o MEMORY
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CPU
CPU is fabricated as a very large scale integrated circuit
(VLSI) and has these parts −
• Instruction register − It holds the instruction to be
executed.
• Decoder − It decodes (converts to machine level
language) the instruction and sends to the ALU
(Arithmetic Logic Unit).
• ALU − It has necessary circuits to perform
arithmetic, logical, memory, register and program
sequencing operations.
• Register − It holds intermediate results obtained
during program processing.
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BUS
Connection lines used to connect the internal parts of the
microprocessor chip is called bus.
There are three types of buses in a microprocessor :
• Data Bus − Lines that carry data to and from memory are called
data bus. It is a bidirectional bus with width equal to word length of
the microprocessor.
• Address Bus − It is a unidirectional responsible for carrying address
of a memory location or I/O port from CPU to memory or I/O port.
• Control Bus − Lines that carry control signals like clock signals,
interrupt signal or ready signal are called control bus. They are
bidirectional. Signal that denotes that a device is ready for
processing is called ready signal.1Signal that indicates to a device
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MEMORY
Microprocessor has two types of memory:
RAM − Random Access Memory is volatile memory that gets
erased when power is switched off. All data and instructions
are stored in RAM.
ROM − Read Only Memory is non-volatile memory whose data
remains intact even after power is switched off.
Microprocessor can read from it any time it wants but cannot
write to it. It is preprogrammed with most essential data like
booting sequence by the manufacturer.
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EVALUATION OF
MICROPROCESSOR
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The first microprocessor introduced in 1971 was a
4-bit microprocessor with 4m5KB memory and
had a set of 45 instructions.
In the past 5 decades microprocessor speed has
doubled every two years, as predicted by Gordon
Moore, Intel co-founder.
Current microprocessors can access 64 GB
memory. Depending on width of data
microprocessors can process, they are of these
categories:
8-bit
16-bit
32-bit
64-bit
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types of microprocessors based
on their instruction set.
RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computers.
- It has a small set of highly optimized instructions. Complex
instruction are also implemented using simpler instructions,
reducing the size of instruction set. The designing philosophy
for RISC incorporates these salient points :
• Number of instructions should be minimum.
• Instructions should be of same length.
• Simple addressing modes should be used
• Reduce memory references to retrieve operands by adding
registers
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CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computers. It
supports hundreds of instructions. Computers supporting CISC
can accomplish wide variety of tasks, making them ideal for
personal computers.
These are some characteristics of CISC architecture :
• Larger set of instructions
• Instructions are of variable length
• Complex addressing modes
• Instructions take more than one clock cycle
• Work well with simpler compilers
Examples of CISC processors are Intel 386 & 486, Pentium,
Pentium II and III, Motorola 68000, etc.
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EPIC stands for Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing. It
is a computer architecture that is a cross between RISC and
CISC, trying to provide the best of both. Its important features
include :
• Parallel instructions rather than fixed width
• Mechanism to communication compiler’s execution plan to
hardware
• Programs must have sequential semantics
• Some EPIC processors are Intel IA-64, Itanium, etc.
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Basics of
Computers -
Input/Output Ports
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A connection point that acts as interface between the computer
and external devices like mouse, printer, modem, etc. is
called port.
Ports are of two types :
• Internal port − It connects the motherboard to internal devices
like hard disk drive, CD drive, internal modem, etc.
• External port − It connects the motherboard to external devices
like modem, mouse, printer, flash drives, etc.
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REAL PANEL CONNECTORS
PS/2 Mouse Port (green). This port
is for a PS/2 mouse.
Video Graphics Adapter (VGA)
port. This 15-pin is for a
VGA monitor or other VGA-
compatible devices.
3. USB 3.0 ports 6. These 9-pin
Universal Serial Bus (USB) ports
connect to USB 3.0/2.0 devices.
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[Link] (RJ-45)port. This port allows Gigabit
connection to a Local Area Network (LAN)
through
a network hub. Refer to the table below for the
LAN port
LED indications.
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5. Line In port (light blue). This port connects the
CD, DVD player, or other audio
sources.
6. Line Out port (lime). This port connects to a
headphone or a speaker. In 4.1, 5.1 and 7.1-channel
configurations, the function of this port becomes Front
Speaker Out.
7. Microphone port (pink). This port connects a
microphone.
8. USB 2.0 ports. These 4-pin Universal Serial Bus (USB)
ports are available for connecting USB 2.0/1.1
9. DisplayPort. This port is for a DisplayPort
compatible device.
10. HDMI Port. This port is for a High
Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI)
connector, and is HDCP compliant allowing
playback of HD DVD, Blu-ray and other
protected content.
11. DVI-D port. This port is for a DVI-D compatible
device. DVI-D can’t be converted to output RGB
Signal to CRT and isn’t compatible with DVI-I.
12. PS/2 Keyboard Port (purple).
This port is for a PS/2 keyboard.
Serial Port
Serial ports transmit data
sequentially one bit at a
time. So they need only one
wire to transmit 8 bits.
However it also makes them
slower. Serial ports are
usually 9-pin or 25-pin male
connectors.
They are also known as COM
(communication) ports or
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RS323C ports.
Parallel Port
Parallel ports can send
or receive 8 bits or 1
byte at a time. Parallel
ports come in form of
25-pin female pins and
are used to connect
printer, scanner,
external hard disk
drive, etc.
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USB Port
USB stands for Universal
Serial Bus. It is the
industry standard for
short distance digital data
connection. USB port is a
standardized port to
connect a variety of
devices like printer,
camera, keyboard,
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PS-2 Port
PS/2 stands for Personal System/2. It is a female
6-pin port standard that connects to the male mini-
DIN cable. PS/2 was introduced by IBM to connect
mouse and keyboard to personal computers. This
port is now mostly obsolete, though some systems
compatible with IBM may have this port.
Infrared Port
Infrared port is a port that enables wireless
exchange of data within a radius of 10m. Two
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Bluetooth Port
Bluetooth is a telecommunication specification that
facilitates wireless connection between phones,
computers and other digital devices over short
range wireless connection. Bluetooth port enables
synchronization between Bluetooth-enabled devices.
There are two types of Bluetooth ports :
Incoming − It is used to receive connection from
Bluetooth devices.
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FireWire Port
FireWire is Apple Computer’s interface standard for
enabling high speed communication using serial
bus.
It is also called IEEE 1394 and used mostly for audio
and video devices like digital camcorders.
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ACRONYMS
P2P – PEER TO PEER
BIOS – BASIC INPUT OUTPUT SYSTEM
GOOGLE – GLOBAL ORGANIZATION OF ORIENTED GROUP
LANGUAGE OF EARTH
WI-FI – WIRELESS FIDELITY
SSD- SOLID STATE DRIVE
DBMS – DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
DVD – DIGITAL VERSATILE DISC
SIM – SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY MOBILE
GPS – GLOBAL POSITION SYSTEM
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ACRONYMS
HTTP – HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL
URL – UNIFORM RESOURCE PROTOCOL
HTML – HYPERTEXT MARKUP LANGUAGE
WAN – WIDE AREA NETWORK
GUI – GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE
GIF – GRAPHICS INTERCHANGE FORMAT
MAC – MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL
VPN – VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK
WPA – WIFI PROTECTED ACCESS
SATA – SERIAL ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY ATTACHMENT
USB – UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS
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