Module 4

STEELS
 In the Fe-C system, the alloys
containing upto 2.14 %C are known as
steels
 Divided into two major categories
 Plain carbon steels
 Alloy steels

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PLAIN CARBON STEELS
 Based on carbon content, plain carbon
steels are classified as
 Low Carbon Steels
%C Properties Uses
0.1%C High ductility, low strength, Nails, rivets
low hardnes

0.2%C Tough, high ductility, low Pipes, angles

hardness good strength channels, beams,
rods plates etc

0.3%C Tough, good strength and Structural materials,

ductility, moderate hardness low temperature
pressure vessels
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CONT…
 Different types of plain carbon steel
 Medium Carbon Steels
%C Properties Uses
0.3-0.6%C Tough, ductile, good strength Shafts, gears, engine
and hardness parts hand tools like
spanner, screw driver
etc
 High Carbon Steels

%C Properties Uses
0.6- Very tough, ductile, good Springs, hammer,
1.2%C strength and hardness chisels, dies, knives,
hacksaw blades etc
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PLAIN CARBON STEELS

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ALLOY STEELS
 Alloying elements are added to the
steel so that the steel satisfies various
requirements, such as:
 Environmental: corrosion resistance
 Mechanical: hardness, strength, and

toughness
 Thermal: strength and durability of a metal

at either subzero or extremely high

temperatures
 Commonly added elements are Mn, Ni,
Cr, Mo, W, V, Cu, B, Al and Si 6
CONT…
 Purpose of Adding Alloy Elements in
Steels
 The addition of alloy elements in the iron-
carbon system makes the system more
complex. In low alloy steels, however, the
effect of alloy elements may be separated
into two groups:
 Elements that combine with carbon: Chromium,
Manganese, Molybdenum, Titanium, Tungsten,
Vanadium, etc.
 Elements that dissolve in ferrite: Aluminum,
Copper, Nickel, Silicon, etc.
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CONT…
 Effects of Alloying Elements
 Dislocation Movement
 An alloying atom is by nature a point defect.
 The presence of alloying atoms would develop
lattice stresses.
 The alloying atoms would have different elastic
modulus which would create a different terrain
for moving dislocation.
 The dislocations will experience difficulty in
mobility

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CONT…
 Effects of Alloying Elements (cont…)
 Polymorphic Transformation Temperature
 Alloying elements like Mo, Cr, W, Si, V, Ti will
trend to contract austenite region
 Alloying elements Ni, Mn, Cu, Co etc will trend
to enlarge the austenite region
 Alloying elements will change the n
temperature for α-γ and γ-δ transformation

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CONT…
 Effects of Alloying Elements (cont…)
 Displacement of Eutectoid Point

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EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS
3. Displacement of Eutectoid
Point
 A1temperature is lowered by the austenite-
formers and raised by the ferrite-formers.

 Influence of alloying element addition on

eutectoid temperature and eutectoid carbon
content is displayed in Fig.

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EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS
4. Retardation of
transformation
 The austeniterate
transformation temperature
is shifted up or down by alloying elements.
 Increasing Ni or Mn content will lower the
austenite transformation temperature
thereby postponing of austenite on slow
cooling
5. Lowering of critical cooling
rates
 TTT curves are shifted to the right due to
most of the alloying elements.
 Except Co this means that the critical
cooling rate required for formation of
martensite is decreased and hence leading
to better hardenability

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EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS
6. Improvement in Corrosion
Resistance
 Elements like Al forms thin oxide layers
and protect it from further corrosion.
 Cr imparts corrosion resistance only
when the composition is more than
13%
7. Influence on Grain Growth
 Grain growth is retarded in the presence
of Ni and V
 These elements are usually called as grain
refiners

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ALLOY ELEMENTS ARE ADDED TO STEEL FOR
SOME BASIC PURPOSES, FOR EXAMPLE:

 Cobalt: Improves mechanical properties at high temperatures.

Aluminium: deoxides steel
 Copper: Increases corrosion resistance and improves
machinability.
 Chromium: Improves resistance to corrosion and wear.
 Lead: aids machinability.
 Manganese: Deoxidizes steel and improves hardenability.
 Molybdenum: Improves strength, hardenability, and wear
resistance.

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 Titanium: Improves strength, hardenability, and
wear resistance.
 Vanadium: Improves strength, hardenability, and
wear resistance.
 Nickel: Increases hardenability and corrosion
resistance.
 Phosphorus: Improves corrosion resistance in
structural grades of steel.
 Silicon: improves strength
 Sulfur: improves machinability
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The alloying elements can be grouped as

austenite-forming, C, Ni, Mn
ferrite-forming, Cr, Si, Mo, W and Al.
Carbide/nitride forming Cr, W, Mo, V, Ti, Nb, Ta, Zr

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FUNCTIONS OF ALLOYING
ELEMENTS
Element Percentage Functions
S <0.33 improves machinability, reduce
weldability and ductility
P <0.12 improves machinability, reduce
impact strength
Si 1.5 to 2.5 Improves toughness, increase
hardenability
Mn 0.5 to 2.0 Increase hardenability, reduce the
adverse effect of S
B 0.001 to Increases hardenability
0.05
Al 0.01 to Removes oxygen from molten metal
0.06
Pb <0.35 Improves machinability

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FUNCTIONS OF ALLOYING
Element Percentage Functions
ELEMENTS
Ni 1.0 to 5.0 Increases toughness and impact strength,
Improves corrosion resistance of stainless
steels above 8%
Cr 0.5 to 4.0 Improves oxidation resistance. wear and
corrosion resistance, Improves high
temperature strength due to the formation
of carbides
Mo 0.1 to 0.4 Improves hardenability and wear
resistance. Improves high temperature
hardness, eliminates temper
embrittlement
W 2.0 to 3.0 A strong carbide former. Improves
hardenability and wear resistance.,
eliminates temper embrittlement
V 0.1 to 0.3 A strong carbide former and prevents grain
growthImproves hardenability, increases
wear and fatigue resistance

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FUNCTIONS OF ALLOYING
ELEMENTS

Element Percentage Function

Ti <1.0 A strong carbide former. Improves
strength and corrosion resistance
Cu 0.15 to 0.25 Promotes precipitation hardening.
Improves strength , hardness and
corrosion resistance
Co 5 to 10 Improves high temperature hardness
and mechanical properties. Improves
corrosion and wear resistance

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CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOY STEELS

Ni -
Steels
Nickel
 Unlimited solubility in γ-iron.
 Highly soluble in ferrite
 Does not form carbide.
 Retards transformation of austenite
 Lowers critical temperature
 Pearlite formed at lower temperature is finer and
tougher than the pearlite of plain carbon steel.

Ni-steels have better toughness, ductility,

fatigue resistance.

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CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOY STEELS
….

Cr-
Steels
 A strong carbide former Euromax 515 Chromium Black
 Soluble upto 13% in γ-ironStainless Steel Lip
 Unlimited solubility in α – ferrite
 A special type with 1%C and 2-4% Cr has
excellent magnetic properties.
With more than 5% Cr, Chromium steels have
improved high temperature properties and
corrosion resistance.

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CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOY STEELS
….
Ni-Cr Steels
 Ni to Cr ratio is about 5:2.

This combination results in increased

toughness, ductility, hardenability and wear
resistance.
Mo - Steels
 Limited solubility in γ and α iron.
 A strong carbide former.
 Used with Cr, Ni or both

Mo- steels have good hardenability, high

temperature hardness, wear resistance

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CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOY STEELS
….
High Speed Steels
(HSS)
 Wear resistant due to the presence of hard
matrix carbides
 Maintain high hardness at high temperature
upto 550° C
W based
 Used Mo
and based
HSS
for cutting tools
W + Cr, V, Co
Mo + Cr, V, Co

High temperature hardness is due to the formation

of alloy carbides

18-4-1 is the most commonly used cutting tools in

manufacturing industries 23
OTHER POPULAR ALLOY STEELS ….

Free Cutting steels

 Higher machinability is the required
property.
 Two types
High sulpher steels
Leaded steels

Rail steels

Requirement:
Strength, ductility, high impact strength,
fatigue resistance
Addition of Mn and Cr (upto 1% ) improve these
properties 24
OTHER POPULAR ALLOY STEELS ….

Spring steels
Requirements:
High elastic limit, good elongation, high
fatigue resistance
Mn and Si are used as main alloying elements in
spring steels
Tool steels
Requirements:
High hardness, wear resistance, good
toughness, resistance to shock
Used to make different type of tools like chisels,
hammers, punches, dies shears etc

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OTHER POPULAR ALLOY STEELS ….

HSLA Steels(Micro alloyed

steels)
 They are designed to provide better mechanical
properties than conventional carbon steels.
 The HSLA steels have low carbon contents (0.50 to
~0.25%C) in order to produce adequate formability
and weldability, and they have manganese contents up
to 2.0 %.
Small quantities of chromium, nickel, molybdenum,
copper, nitrogen, vanadium, niobium, titanium, and
zirconium are used in various combinations.

The chemical composition of a specific

HSLA steel may vary for different product
thickness to meet mechanical property
requirements.
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OTHER POPULAR ALLOY STEELS ….
TMT Steels

Thermo mechanically treatd (TMT) steels have

superior properties like weldability strength,
ductility and toughness.
Under thermo mechanical treatment of bars, the steel
bars are made to pass through a specially designed
water cooling system where these are kept for such a
period that outer surface of bars becomes colder while
the core
This remains
creates hot.
a temperature gradient in the bars. When
the bars are taken out of the cooling system, the heat
flows from the core to the outer surface causing
further tempering of steel bars thereby helping them
in attaining higher yield strength of steel. 27
OTHER POPULAR ALLOY STEELS ….
Stainless
Steels
 Stainless Steels are iron-base alloys
containing Chromium.
 They attain their stainless characteristics
because of the formation of an invisible
and adherent chromium-rich oxide surface
film.
 Some other alloying elements added to
enhance specific characteristics include nickel,
molybdenum, copper, titanium, aluminum,
silicon, niobium, and nitrogen.

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Stainless
Steels
Corrosion resistance and mechanical properties
are commonly the principal factors in selecting a
grade of stainless steel for a given application.

Stainless steels are commonly divided into 5

groups:
 Martensitic stainless steels
 Ferritic stainless steels
 Austenitic stainless steels
 Duplex (ferritic-austenitic) stainless steels
 Precipitation-hardening stainless steels.

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Stainless
Steels
Martensitic stainless steels
 Martensitic stainless steels are essentially alloys of
chromium (12-14%) and carbon (upto 0.15%) that
possess a martensitic crystal structure in the
hardened condition.
 They are ferromagnetic, hardenable by heat
treatments, and are usually less resistant to corrosion
than some other grades of stainless steel.
 Chromium content usually does not exceed 18%,
while carbon content may exceed 1.0 %. The
Cr and C contents are adjusted to ensure a
martensitic structure after hardening.
 Excess carbides may be present to enhance wear
resistance or as in the case of knife blades, to
maintain cutting edges.

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 Stainless
Steels
Ferritic stainless steels
 Ferritic stainless steels are Cr (16-25%) and
C (0.12 -0.2%) containing alloys with body
centered cubic (bcc) crystal structures.
 The ferritic stainless steels are ferromagnetic.
 They may have good ductility and formability,
but high-temperature mechanical
properties are relatively inferior to the
austenitic stainless steels.
 Toughness is limited at low temperatures and
in heavy sections.
 Cannot be heat treated since austenite
does not form at any temperature

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 Stainless
Steels stainless steels
Austenitic
 Austenitic stainless steels have a face centered
cubic (fcc) crystal structure.
 Austenitic stainless steels are effectively
nonmagnetic in the annealed condition and can be
hardened only by cold working.
 Austenite is formed through the generous use of
austenitizing elements such as nickel,
manganese, and nitrogen.
 They have reasonable cryogenic and high
temperature strength properties.
 Cr content typically is in the range of 16 to 26%; Ni
content is commonly less than 35%.
 Some variety may contain Mo (upto 2%) for
improved creep and corrosion properties.

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 Stainless
Steelsstainless steels
Duplex
 The primary alloying elements are chromium
and nickel..
 Duplex stainless steels are a mixture of bcc
ferrite and fcc austenite crystal structures.
 Most Duplex stainless steels are intended to
contain equal amounts of ferrite and
austenite in the annealed condition.
 Duplex stainless steels generally have better
stress corrosion cracking resistance
 Duplex stainless steels also generally have
greater tensile and yield strengths, but poorer
toughness than austenitic stainless steels.

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 Stainless
Steels
Precipitation hardening stainless steels
 Precipitation hardening stainless steels are
chromium-nickel alloys.
 Precipitation-hardening stainless steels may
be either austenitic or martensitic in the
annealed condition.
 In most cases, precipitation hardening
stainless steels attain high strength by
precipitation hardening of the martensitic
structure.

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CAST IRONS
Cast irons typically contain more than 2 wt%
of carbon (2-5%C)

35
CAST IRONS …..
 In this composition range liquid state is between
1150-1300 C, which is lower than that for
steels.
 They are easily melted and cast
 Most cast irons are brittle. Hence casting is a
convenient fabrication technique
 Cast irons have higher compressive strength,
ability to absorb vibrations, better wear, abrasion,
corrosion and heat resistance, rigidity and
machinability
 With suitable composition and heat treatment,
variety of microstructure could be
developed with varying properties

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CLASSIFICATION OF CAST IRONS
They are classified based on the metallurgical structure
and appearance
Factors controlling structure &
appearance
1. Carbon content
Carbon is present either as Fe3C or as free carbon in the
form of graphite.
Alloy carbides are also formed when other alloying elements
are present

2. Cooling rate
Higher cooling rate generally help the formation of
carbides while slower cooling rates help carbon to be in
the free form
3. Heat treatment
Heat treatment helps in either
(a) the formation of carbide or
(b) decomposition of cementite into free carbon and
(c) causes changes in the shape, size and distribution
of graphite particles

37
CLASSIFICATION OF CAST IRONS ….

Depending upon the nature, shape, size and distribution

of carbon, cast irons are classified as
1. Grey cast iron
2. White cast iron
3. Ductile cast iron
The carbon equivalent (CE) of a cast iron helps to
distinguish the grey irons which cool into a
microstructure containing graphite and the white irons
where the carbon is present mainly as cementite

A high cooling rate and a low carbon equivalent favours

the formation of white cast iron whereas a low cooling
rate or a high carbon equivalent promotes grey cast iron.

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Grey cast iron
 Carbon exist in free form as graphite flakes
embeded in a matrix of α-ferrite or pearlite
 Due to the presence of graphite flakes, a
fracture surface appears grey in colour
 Have low strength and brittle in tension. But have
better strength and ductility in compression
 Uses: Automobile parts like cylinder block, cylinder
head, break drum lining, underground piping, motor
case, machine tool beds etc

39
White cast iron
 White cast irons are hard and brittle; they
cannot easily be machined.
 Upon rapid cooling most of the carbon exist as
cementite
 The fracture surface has a white appearance
 Have good wear resistance, compressive
strength
 Used for components requiring high abrasion
resistance, pump liner, rollers for rolling mill
etc.

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Ductile cast iron
 Addition of Mg in small quantities to grey iron leads
to a different microstructure
 Carbon exist as graphite in the form of nodules or
spheroids instead of flakes
 This variant of cast iron is ductile. It is also known as
spheroidised graphite iron (SG iron) or nodular cast iron.
 Mechanical properties are comparable with steel
 Have superior wear resistance.

Typical applications
-- automobile parts
-- farm machinery
-- earth moving equipments
-- pumps and compressors
-- gears, valves, IC engine parts

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Malleable iron

 Produced from white cast iron using heat treatment

process known as melleabilising
 White cast iron is heated above 700 C and held for a
longer period and then cooled.
 During this process cementite in white iron
decomposes in the form of irregular shaped globules.
The matrix is either pearlite or ferrite depending upon
 These castings
the cooling [Link] widely used in automobile,
electrical and railway industries due to good
combination of strength, ductility, wear resistance and
 machinability
Typical uses are brackets, hubs, break drums, cam
shafts, crank shafts, housing, earth moving parts etc.

42
Wrought iron

 It is an iron alloy with very low carbon content

and impregnated with tiny fibrous inclusions
of iron silicate known as slag
 The presence of slag changes the chemical
properties of iron enough to create a new
and beneficial metal.
 Have good strength, resistance to corrosion
and melleability

 Wrought iron lacks the carbon content

necessary for hardening through heat
treatment

43
Wrought iron
structures

44