Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

• Early Life and Career

• Born in 1817 in Delhi, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was well-
versed in Arabic, Persian, Mathematics, and Medicine by
age 18.
• After his father's death in 1838, he pursued a career in the
judiciary, becoming a judge in Delhi in 1846.
• During the War of Independence in 1857, he served as a
chief judge in Bijnaur and was noted for saving the lives of
many English women and children. For his loyalty, the
British offered him a state with a large income, which he
refused.
• Later, he was appointed Chief Justice in Muradabad and
subsequently transferred to Ghazipure and then Aligarh.
• Beliefs and Contributions
• Sir Syed was deeply concerned about the declining social
and economic status of Muslims in the subcontinent
following the Mughal decline and their participation in the
1857 uprising.
• He believed that Muslims needed to adopt a positive
approach towards the British to improve their status and
advocated for modern education and social reform as a
means to progress.
• Educational Reforms and the Aligarh Movement
• Sir Syed's most significant contribution was the Aligarh
Movement, which aimed to educate and politically mobilize
Muslims in India.
• He founded several educational institutions, including:
– Gulshan School in Muradabad (1859)
– Victoria School in Ghazipur (1863)
– Scientific Society in Aligarh (1864) to translate English works into
native languages
– Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental School in Aligarh (1875), which
later became Aligarh Muslim University in 1920.
• His educational reforms were aimed at uplifting the Muslim
community by introducing modern scientific and English
education, which he believed was crucial for their
• Reconciliation and Political Views
• Sir Syed advocated for reconciliation and cooperation
between Muslims and the British. He believed that Muslims
should not oppose the British and instead sought to build
good relations to secure better opportunities for Muslims.
• He published several works to bridge misunderstandings,
including "Loyal Muhammadans of India" and "Cause of
Indian Revolt," and wrote a commentary on the Bible to
show the similarities between Islam and Christianity.
• Politically, he advised Muslims to avoid participation in the
Indian National Congress, predicting that it would become
a Hindu-dominated organization. He promoted the idea of
Muslims as a distinct nation (Two-Nation Theory), which
• Urdu-Hindi Controversy and Two-Nation Theory
• The Urdu-Hindi Controversy in 1867 marked a turning
point for Sir Syed, as he realized the deep cultural divide
between Hindus and Muslims.
• He shifted from advocating Hindu-Muslim unity to
promoting the idea of Muslims and Hindus as separate
nations with distinct cultures and languages. This laid the
foundation for the Two-Nation Theory.
• Legacy
• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan is remembered as a pioneer of
Muslim education and social reform in India. His efforts
were crucial in laying the groundwork for the intellectual
and political awakening of Muslims in the subcontinent.
• His belief in modern education and the promotion of a
distinct Muslim identity had a lasting impact, influencing
the creation of Pakistan in 1947.
 Allama Muhammad Iqbal
Allama Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938) was a prominent
philosopher, poet, and politician in British India who is
widely regarded as having inspired the Pakistan Movement.
He is often referred to as "Mufakkir-e-Pakistan" (The Thinker
of Pakistan), "Shair-e-Mashriq" (The Poet of the East), and
"Hakeem-ul-Ummat" (The Sage of the Ummah).
Born on November 9, 1877, in Sialkot, Punjab, in British
India (now in Pakistan).His family was of Kashmiri Brahmin
descent who had converted to [Link] his early
education in Sialkot and went on to attend Government
College Lahore, where he obtained his Bachelor of Arts
[Link] later went to Europe for higher studies, obtaining a
degree in philosophy from the University of Cambridge and a
doctorate from the University of Munich.
• Ideals of Muslim Nationalism in South Asia
• Vision for a Separate Muslim State:
– Iqbal is considered one of the earliest proponents of the
idea of a separate Muslim state in South Asia, which
later became Pakistan.
– In his famous presidential address at the All-India
Muslim League's session in Allahabad in 1930, Iqbal
articulated his vision of an independent Muslim state in
the northwest of India. This idea laid the foundation for
the demand for Pakistan.
• Philosophy of Selfhood (Khudi):
• Iqbal's concept of "Khudi" revolves around self-identity,
self-realization, and the strength of individual character. He
believed that Muslims needed to cultivate a sense of self-
awareness and self-esteem to reclaim their rightful place in
the world.
• Pan-Islamism and Unity:
• He was a proponent of Pan-Islamism, emphasizing the
unity and solidarity of Muslims worldwide. Iqbal believed
that the political and social unification of Muslims was
essential for their spiritual and material well-being.
• Prevailing Political Situations of His Time
• British Colonial Rule:
– Iqbal lived during a period when British colonialism dominated
India. The subjugation and political, economic, and social
exploitation of India under British rule were significant concerns.
• Decline of the Muslim Power and Identity:
– The fall of the Mughal Empire and the subsequent British domination
had resulted in a sense of decline and despondency among Indian
Muslims. Iqbal sought to revive Islamic ideals and address this
decline.
• Hindu-Muslim Tensions and the Indian National
Movement:
– The rising tide of nationalism, led predominantly by Hindu leaders in
the Indian National Congress, was seen by many Muslims as a threat
to their political and cultural identity. Iqbal believed Muslims should
• Contribution
• Revival of Islamic Philosophy:
– Iqbal's works sought to revitalize Islamic thought by merging traditional
Islamic teachings with contemporary ideas. He urged Muslims to
reinterpret Islamic principles in light of modern challenges.
• Influence on the Pakistan Movement:
– His ideas greatly influenced the leaders of the Pakistan Movement,
especially Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Iqbal's vision of a separate Muslim state
inspired the demand for Pakistan.
• Intellectual and Literary Contributions:
– Iqbal's poetry and writings have left a lasting impact on Urdu and Persian
literature. His thoughts on selfhood, nationalism, and spirituality continue
to inspire generations.
• Politics
– Iqbal was an active member of the All-India Muslim League and
contributed to political discourse. He was also a member of the Punjab
 Muhammad Ali Jinnah
Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876-1948) was a prominent
lawyer, politician, and the founding father of Pakistan. His
contributions to the Muslims of India and the creation of
Pakistan were pivotal in the subcontinent's history.
• Early Life and Career
• Education and Early Career: Born in Karachi, Jinnah
went to London to study law at Lincoln's Inn and became
the youngest Indian to pass the bar exam in 1896. After
returning to India, he established a successful law practice
in Bombay (now Mumbai).
• Political Beginnings: Jinnah's political career began with
his involvement in the Indian National Congress (INC) in
1906, where he worked for Hindu-Muslim unity and India's
independence from British rule. He was initially a moderate
nationalist, advocating for constitutional reforms and
legislative representation.
• Jinnah's Role in Muslim Politics
• Shift to Muslim Politics: Although Jinnah started as a
member of the Congress, his views gradually shifted as he
perceived the growing divide between Hindu and Muslim
interests. By 1913, Jinnah joined the All India Muslim League
(AIML), which was founded in 1906 to protect Muslim
interests. He continued to advocate for Hindu-Muslim unity,
famously being called the "ambassador of Hindu-Muslim
unity."
• Lucknow Pact (1916): One of Jinnah's early political
achievements was negotiating the Lucknow Pact between the
Congress and the Muslim League, where both parties agreed
on separate electorates and quotas for Muslims in government
services, thus recognizing Muslim political rights.
• Jinnah as the Creator of Pakistan
• Demand for Separate State: Over time, Jinnah's stance
evolved, especially as the political landscape in India changed
with rising communal tensions. The failure of the Congress-
League coalition in the 1937 provincial elections convinced
Jinnah that Muslims needed a separate homeland where they
could practice their religion freely without Hindu domination.
• Two-Nation Theory: Jinnah became a staunch advocate of
the "Two-Nation Theory," which argued that Muslims and
Hindus were distinct nations with different religions, cultures,
and social customs and, therefore, should have separate
states. His famous Lahore Resolution of 1940 formally called
for the creation of "independent states" for Muslims in north-
western and eastern zones of India.
• World War II and the Path to Independence: During
World War II, Jinnah and the Muslim League distanced
themselves from the British, demanding "Divide and Quit."
By the end of the war, the demand for a separate Pakistan
had gained widespread support among Muslims, and the
League emerged as the primary representative of Muslim
India in the 1946 elections.
• Negotiations and Partition (1947): Jinnah's unwavering
stance in the negotiations with the British and Congress
leaders, coupled with his ability to rally Muslim support,
eventually led to the creation of Pakistan on August 14,
1947. Jinnah became the first Governor-General of
Pakistan and the President of its Constituent Assembly.
• Contribution to Muslim Nationalism
• Muslim Nationalism in India: Jinnah's leadership transformed the
Muslim League from a minor political entity into a mass movement
that successfully mobilized Muslims across the Indian subcontinent.
His emphasis on Muslim identity and rights galvanized a sense of unity
and purpose among Muslims, many of whom felt marginalized in the
broader Indian independence struggle dominated by the Congress
Party.
• Symbol of Muslim Identity: Jinnah's vision of Pakistan was deeply
rooted in the notion of Muslim nationalism. His insistence on a
separate state was based on the argument that Muslims constituted a
separate nation deserving political sovereignty.
• Legacy: Jinnah's legacy in Pakistan is as "Quaid-e-Azam" (Great
Leader), a title reflecting his stature as the nation's founder. His efforts
laid the foundation for Pakistan's constitutional and political framework
and the struggle to balance religious identity with a modern, democratic
 Constitution Making 1947-1956
By the end of World War II, the British imperial government granted
independence to its Indian colony and for that matter the British
Parliament enacted the Indian Independence Act, 1947. Under the Act,
the British Crown relinquished its sovereign powers over India and
transferred those powers to the newly established dominions of India
and Pakistan on 14 August 1947. The Government of India Act, 1935,
hitherto the constitution of British India, was amended to bring it in
consonance with the aims and objectives of independence as laid down
in the 1947 Act. The combination of these two constitutional instruments
served as an interim constitutional order for both countries until their
respective constituent assemblies adopted their own constitutions.
The constitutional history of Pakistan from 1947 to 1956 is
marked by the country's efforts to establish a stable and
effective constitutional framework following its
independence from British colonial rule. This period includes
the initial formation of Pakistan's government, the challenges
of creating a new constitution, and the eventual adoption of
the 1956 Constitution.
August 14, 1947: Pakistan gained independence from British
rule and was established as a separate dominion. At
independence, Pakistan did not have a constitution of its own.
Instead, it adopted the Government of India Act, 1935, as an
interim constitution with necessary amendments to govern the
new country. This Act provided a federal structure with a strong
center and limited powers for the [Link] Governor-
General was the head of state, representing the British Crown,
while the Prime Minister was the head of government.
August 1947: The Constituent Assembly of Pakistan was
established to draft a new constitution. It faced several
challenges, including the need to reconcile different interests and
the complex socio-political landscape. Pakistan was divided into
two geographically and culturally distinct regions: East Pakistan
(now Bangladesh) and West Pakistan. The Assembly faced
immediate challenges in terms of linguistic, cultural, and political
differences between East and West Pakistan. The population of
East Pakistan was larger, yet political power was concentrated in
West Pakistan, leading to tensions.
March 1949: The Objectives Resolution was passed by the
Constituent Assembly, which laid down the guiding
principles for the future constitution. It declared that
sovereignty belonged to Allah alone but would be exercised
through the representatives of the people. The resolution
emphasized democracy, freedom, equality, and social justice
as fundamental principles.
• The Basic Principles Committee and Delay in
Constitution-Making (1949-1954)
• To draft a constitution, the Constituent Assembly set up the
Basic Principles Committee in March 1949. However, the
committee's work was hampered by disagreements over the
form of government (parliamentary vs. presidential) and the
representation of East and West Pakistan.
• The Bengali population in East Pakistan demanded parity
in representation, fearing domination by West Pakistan.
These disagreements led to significant delays in drafting
the constitution.
• 1950-1952: There were continuous debates and multiple
proposals, but none could resolve the differences
• Dissolution of the First Constituent Assembly (1954)
• October 1954: Governor-General Ghulam Muhammad
dissolved the Constituent Assembly, citing its failure to
produce a constitution and issues of governance. This
action was legally challenged, leading to the landmark
Maulvi Tamizuddin Khan Case, in which the judiciary,
under Chief Justice Muhammad Munir, controversially
validated the dissolution.
• The dissolution highlighted the fragile nature of
constitutional development in Pakistan and the growing
influence of the executive branch.
• Second Constituent Assembly and the Adoption of the 1956
Constitution (1955-1956)
• May 1955: A new Constituent Assembly was formed through
indirect elections. This assembly was more successful in drafting
a constitution, partly due to changes in the political landscape
and a renewed sense of urgency.
• 1956 Constitution:
– March 23, 1956: The Constitution of Pakistan was finally adopted,
establishing Pakistan as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
– The 1956 Constitution provided for a parliamentary form of
government with a unicameral legislature (National Assembly) and
recognized Urdu and Bengali as the national languages.
– It declared Islam as the state religion and laid out fundamental rights
and principles of policy.
– The President of Pakistan was to be the ceremonial head of state, while
• Significance of the 1956 Constitution
• The 1956 Constitution was Pakistan's first attempt to frame a
comprehensive constitutional document that reflected its unique
socio-political conditions and aspirations as a newly independent
state.
• However, the constitution could not provide lasting political
stability. The inherent tensions between East and West Pakistan,
combined with the constitutional ambiguities and the concentration
of power within the executive, continued to pose challenges.
• 7. End of the Period (1958)
• Despite the adoption of the 1956 Constitution, political instability
persisted. In October 1958, the constitution was abrogated by
President Iskander Mirza, who declared martial law and appointed
General Ayub Khan as the Chief Martial Law Administrator,
marking the beginning of military rule in Pakistan.
 Constitution of 1956, 1962 and 1973
The constitutional history of Pakistan is marked by three
significant constitutions: the 1956, 1962, and 1973
Constitutions. Each of these constitutions reflects the political
dynamics, ideological shifts, and socio-economic conditions
prevailing in the country during their respective periods.
• Background
• The 1956 Constitution was the first constitution of
Pakistan, coming into effect on March 23, 1956.
• It marked the end of the British colonial Government of
India Act 1935, which had been serving as the interim
constitution since independence in 1947.
• The 1956 Constitution sought to address the political and
administrative needs of a newly independent nation that
was struggling with issues of identity, governance, and
regional disparities.
• Key Features
• Form of Government: Adopted a parliamentary form of
government, with a Prime Minister as the head of government and a
ceremonial President as the head of state.
• Federal Structure: Provided for a federal system with significant
powers allocated to the central government.
• Unicameral Legislature: Established a unicameral National
Assembly, where the representation was to be equally divided
between East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) and West Pakistan, despite
their population differences.
• Islam as State Religion: Declared Pakistan an Islamic republic and
introduced the Objectives Resolution as a preamble, emphasizing
the sovereignty of Allah and Islamic principles.
• Fundamental Rights: Included a chapter on fundamental rights and
freedoms, although these were not absolute and could be suspended.
• Critical Analysis
• Strengths: The constitution was a progressive step towards
establishing a republican form of government and aimed to
bring a democratic framework to the state.
• Weaknesses: The equal representation for East and West
Pakistan in the National Assembly was contentious given
East Pakistan's larger population. The constitution faced
criticism for not adequately addressing the autonomy
demands of East Pakistan.
• Outcome: The constitution was short-lived, abrogated in
1958 following a military coup led by General Ayub Khan,
highlighting its inability to withstand political instability
and regional tensions.
• 1962 Constitution
• Background
• The 1962 Constitution was introduced by General Ayub
Khan after the abrogation of the 1956 Constitution. It was
part of Ayub Khan's efforts to establish a controlled
democracy in Pakistan.
• This constitution was a result of a military regime's attempt
to consolidate power while still providing a semblance of
civilian governance.
• Key Features
• Presidential Form of Government: Replaced the parliamentary
system with a presidential system, concentrating power in the hands
of the President, who was both the head of state and government.
• Unicameral Legislature: Established a unicameral National
Assembly with limited legislative power; however, the President
had substantial control over legislation.
• Basic Democracies: Introduced the system of "Basic
Democracies," a form of local government meant to provide a
controlled form of democracy at the grassroots level, with members
of the local councils indirectly electing the President.
• Islamic Principles: While less emphasis was placed on Islamic
provisions than in the 1956 Constitution, it still acknowledged the
sovereignty of Allah and aimed to align laws with Islamic
teachings.
• Critical Analysis
• Strengths: The constitution sought to create a stable
government by reducing political wrangling and
introducing a clear, authoritative system of governance.
• Weaknesses: The concentration of power in the presidency
and the indirect election system were seen as undemocratic.
It failed to provide adequate representation and autonomy
to East Pakistan, further aggravating regional discontent.
• Outcome: The 1962 Constitution faced opposition for its
authoritarian structure and was eventually abrogated in
1969 following the resignation of Ayub Khan and the
political unrest that ensued, particularly in East Pakistan.
• 973 Constitution
• Background
• The 1973 Constitution was enacted after the secession of
East Pakistan (Bangladesh) and the end of martial law. It
was a result of a consensus among political parties and
aimed to establish a democratic and federal system of
governance.
• This constitution is considered the most enduring and is
still in force, albeit with several amendments over the
years.
• Key Features
• Parliamentary System of Government: Reinstated the parliamentary
system with a clear separation of powers between the executive, legislature,
and judiciary. The Prime Minister is the head of government, while the
President is a ceremonial head of state.
• Bicameral Legislature: Introduced a bicameral parliament comprising the
National Assembly (lower house) and the Senate (upper house), ensuring
representation of both the population and the federating units.
• Islamic Republic: Declared Pakistan an Islamic Republic, with a strong
emphasis on Islamic laws and principles. It also provided for an Islamic
Council to advise on legislation concerning Islamic laws.
• Fundamental Rights and Judiciary: Included a comprehensive list of
fundamental rights, with safeguards for their enforcement. The judiciary was
given the power to enforce these rights and maintain checks and balances on
the executive.
• Provincial Autonomy: Enhanced provincial autonomy, addressing many
concerns that had led to tensions between the center and provinces in the
• Critical Analysis
• Strengths: The 1973 Constitution provided a more balanced
distribution of power, enhanced provincial autonomy, and
included comprehensive human rights protections. It also
created a framework for democratic governance and rule of
law.
• Weaknesses: Despite its strengths, the constitution has been
amended multiple times, often to suit the needs of ruling parties
or military regimes. Some critics argue that the amendments
have undermined the original spirit of the constitution.
• Outcome: The 1973 Constitution remains the fundamental law
of Pakistan, though it has been amended multiple times. It
reflects the aspirations for democracy, federalism, and Islamic
values, despite challenges posed by political instability, military
• Comparative Analysis
• Governance Structure:
– 1956: Parliamentary system with a ceremonial president.
– 1962: Presidential system with concentrated executive
powers.
– 1973: Parliamentary system with a clear separation of
powers and federalism.
• Federalism and Provincial Autonomy:
– 1956: Limited autonomy with a strong central government.
– 1962: Further centralization of powers; minimal provincial
autonomy.
– 1973: Greater emphasis on provincial autonomy,
addressing past grievances.
• Islamic Provisions:
– 1956: Declared Pakistan an Islamic Republic and emphasized
Islamic principles.
– 1962: Maintained some Islamic provisions but was more
secular in its outlook.
– 1973: Strongly emphasized Islamic principles and included
mechanisms for Islamization of laws.
• Democratic Principles:
– 1956: Aimed to establish a democratic framework but faced
implementation challenges.
– 1962: Limited democracy with indirect elections and
concentrated executive power.
– 1973: Sought to establish a democratic and representative
system with strong legislative and judicial checks.
• Nineteenth Constitutional Amendment :
• The Nineteenth Constitutional Amendment in the 1973
constitution of Pakistan was made in 2011. In it the number
of senior judges as member of the judicial Commission has
been raised from two to four.
• Twentieth Constitutional Amendment :
• The Twentieth Constitutional Amendment in the 1973
constitution of Pakistan was made in 2012. It provided for
constituting an eight member committee each at the center
and the provinces to nominate the caretaker prime minister
and the Chief Ministers respectively along with their
cabinets.
• Twenty First Constitutional Amendment :
• The Twenty First Constitutional Amendment in the 1973
constitution of Pakistan was made in 2015. It is related
about establishment of military courts in Pakistan.
• Twenty Second Constitutional Amendment :
• The Twenty Second Constitutional Amendment in the 1973
constitution of Pakistan was made in 2016. In it bureaucrats
and technocrats also will become members of Election
Commission of Pakistan.
[Link]
 18th Amendment
The Eighteenth Amendment was the largest, unique, landmark and the
most comprehensive reform package after the passage of the legal
history of 1973 constitution. It was passed all the way with support from
all political parties in the Parliament. In pursuance of the motions
adopted by the National Assembly on 10th April 2009 and the Senate on
29th April 2009, the Speaker of the National Assembly constituted
Special Committee of the Parliament on Constitutional Reforms
consisting of 27 members. Only 9 members belonged to three
mainstream parties Pakistan People Party, Pakistan Muslim League-N,
and Pakistan Muslim League-Q while 18 belonged to ethnic parties
from smaller provinces, as well as religious parties
The said Committee submitted its amendment Report
containing 133 pages in April 2010.11 This passed from
National Assembly with heavy majority of 292 votes on April
8, 2010 and from Senate with 90 votes on April 15 2010 also
without any opposition. President signed it on April19, 2010
and promulgated on the following day. This Eighteenth
Amendment has overhauled 102 Articles of the 1973
Constitution
• Increased Provincial Autonomy: The abolition of the Concurrent List and
transfer of legislative powers to the provinces allowed for more localized
decision-making, which was expected to improve governance and
responsiveness to regional needs.
• Resource Distribution: Provinces gained control over more resources, which
theoretically allowed for better management and utilization of funds according
to regional priorities.
• Strengthening Democracy:
• Limiting Presidential Powers: By reducing the powers of the President and
enhancing the role of the Prime Minister, the amendment aimed to strengthen
parliamentary democracy and reduce the likelihood of executive overreach.
• Empowering Parliament: Changes to the legislative process and the roles of
various parliamentary bodies were intended to reinforce democratic norms and
checks and balances.
• Improved Federal Structure:
• Clearer Provincial Boundaries: The redefinition of provincial boundaries and
names aimed to address historical grievances and promote a sense of inclusivity
and unity.
Abolition of the Concurrent List: Transferred many areas of
legislative authority from the federal government to the
provincial governments.
• Impacts:
• Decentralization: Provinces gained greater autonomy in
governance and decision-making, which helped address
regional disparities and allowed for more localized
governance.
• Political Stability: By distributing power more equitably, the
amendment aimed to reduce centralization and potential
conflicts between federal and provincial authorities.
• Administrative Efficiency: The shift of responsibilities to
provincial governments was intended to improve
administrative efficiency and service delivery at the local level.
• Legal and Institutional Reforms: The amendment prompted
a series of legal and institutional changes to align with the new
constitutional framework.
[Link]