Structural Geology
The branch of geology that deals with:
Form, arrangement and internal architecture of
rocks
Description, representation, and analysis of
structures from the small to moderate scale
Reconstruction of the motions of rocks
Structural geology provides information about the
conditions during regional deformation using
structures
Main Principles and Concepts
Original Horizontality (Steno)
Uniformitarianism (James Hutton)
Tectonics vs. Structural Geology
Both are concerned with the reconstruction of the
motions that shape the outer layers of earth
Both deal with motion and deformation in the
Earth’s crust and upper mantle
Tectonic events at all scales produce deformation
structures
These two disciplines are closely related and
interdependent
Definitions
Tectonics: Study of the origin and geologic
evolution (history of motion and deformation) of
large areas (regional to global) of the Earth’s
lithosphere (e.g., origin of continents; building of
mountain belts; formation of ocean floor)
Structural Geology: Study of deformation in
rocks at scales ranging from submicroscopic to
regional (micro-, meso-, and macro-scale)
Structural Geologist
A geologist who:
Studies deformation of rock and Earth’s crust
Identifies and interprets geological structures and
their tectonic implications
Field Tectonic Studies
Many tectonic problems are approached by
studying structures at outcrop scale, and smaller
(microscopic) or larger (100’s to 1000’s of km)
scales
Systematically observe/record the patterns of rock
structures (e.g., fault, fold, foliation, fracture).
This gives the geometry of the structures.
Next steps
Explanation of the structures
Kinematics of formation of the
structures – motions that occurred in
producing them
When integrated over a large area,
the motions will help to infer the past
tectonic motions
Use of Models
We use geometric, mechanical, and kinematic
models to understand deformation on all scales
(micro, meso, macro)
Geometric model: 3D interpretation of the
distribution and orientation of features within the
earth crust
Kinematic model: Specific history of motion that
could have carried the system from an undeformed
to its deformed state (or from one configuration to
another)
Plate tectonic model is a kinematic model
Mechanical Model
Mechanical model: Based on laws of
continuum mechanics
Study of rock deformation under
applied forces (laboratory work)
Model of driving forces of plate
tectonic based on the mechanics of
convection in the mantle is a
mechanical model
Analyses
Descriptive:
Recognize, describe structures by measuring their
locations, geometries and orientations
Break a structure into structural elements -
physical & geometric
Kinematic:
Interprets deformational movements that formed
the structures
• Translation, Rotation, Distortion, Dilation
Dynamic:
Interprets forces and stresses from interpreted
deformational movements of structures
We Study:
Changes in the original orientation, location, shape and
volume of a rock body (Deformation: changes in
shape, position, and/or orientation of a body)
Physical and chemical forces that deform rocks
Geologic structures that form to accommodate
changes
Stress - Force applied over an area
Strain - Observable deformation in the rock
Brittle deformation – e.g., fault: the result of rapidly
applied high stress which "break the rock"
Ductile deformation – e.g., fold: the result of slowly
applied, constant, low stress which "bend the rock"
Deformation
Includes: strain, rotation, translation
Homogeneous strain: strain is the same at
every point in the deformed body
Undeformed state is used as a reference frame
Commonly, we do not know the initial state
Coordinate transformation is used to
describe a deformation if initial and final
states are known
Structure
A geometric feature in a rock whose shape,
form, and distribution can be described
Microstructure
The small-scale arrangement of geometric
and mineralogical elements within a rock
Texture
Preferred orientation of crystallographic
axes in the sample
Microfabric
Comprises the microstructure and the
texture of a material
Fundamental Structures
Contacts
Primary Structures
Secondary structures
Fractures (Joints, Shear Fractures)
Vein - Precipitated minerals from fluid flowing
through fractures
Fault
Fold
Fundamental Structures, con’t
Foliation - Preferred orientation of
planar rock bodies and/or minerals
Lineation - Preferred orientation of
linear minerals and rocks
Shear Zone
Zones of deformed rock that have
accommodated movement
Classification of Geologic Structures
Classification of Geologic Structures
Classification of Geologic Structures
Classification of Geologic Structures
Classification of Geologic Structures
Classification of Geologic Structures
Classification of Geologic Structures
This chapter provides a brief
overview of structural geology and
tectonics. A review of the Earth’s
geologic history as it relates to
structural geology and tectonics is
given. Types of faulting and the
structures that result from these
fault motions are also discussed.
What are Structural Geology and Tectonics
Structural geology & tectonics-motions
& processes that build Earth’s crust
Rigid body motion-transportation, no
change in size or shape
Structural geology scale-
submicroscopic to regional
Tectonics Scale-regional to global
Continuum Mechanics-how bodies of
different materials deform under
forces
Structural geology, tectonics and the use of models
Geometric Models
-3D interpretations of structures in Earth
-based on: mapping, geophysical data
Kinematic Models
-prescribe motions that could have carried
system from undeformed→deformed state
-not concerned with physics of the system
-compare observed motions w/ model
Mechanical Models
-motions of model are results of mech.
properties and physical conditions
The interior of the Earth and other terrestrial bodies
Core
-dense, predominantly iron-nickel alloy
-solid inner core, liquid outer core
Mantle
-thick, much lower density than core,
magnesium-iron silicates
1. lithospheric mantle-crust and upper mantle
(100 km under ocean, 200-300 km under
continents)
2. Asthenosphere-closer to melting
temp→weaker
3. mesosphere-stronger, high density, crystalline
phases of magnesium-iron silicates or oxides
The interior of the Earth and other terrestrial bodies
Crust
-thin layer that surrounds mantle
-low-density materials
-igneous rocks-granitic to basaltic
-sediments and sedimentary rocks and metamorphic
rocks
Temperature gradient
-+25oC per km in crust and mantle, smaller deeper
Convection
-moves heat out of liquid core
-carries heat transferred from core & from radioactive
decay w/in mantle to surface
Heat escapes earth:
-conduction through cold lithospheric boundary layer
-advection of heat in magmas
-upwelling of asthenosphere at oceanic spreading
centers
The Earth’s crust and plate tectonics: Introduction
Continental Crust
-granodioritic composition
-34.7% of Earth’s area
Oceanic Crust-basaltic composition
Surface elevation
-Bimodal
-continents-w/in 100’s of meters of sea level
-ocean floor-~5 km below sea surface
Tectonics-lithosphere is divided into
plates the move (rigid body motion)
-deformation of plates concentrated in belts
~100’s of km wide
The Earth’s crust and plate tectonics: Introduction
Tectonics-lithosphere is divided into plates the move
(rigid body motion)
-deformation of plates concentrated in belts ~100’s
of km wide
Plate Boundaries
-Divergent
• *plates move away from each other, *Material flows up
from mantle, *horizontal stretching & vertical thinning of
crust
• *normal faulting surface, ductile thinning deeper
-Convergent-subduction zones
• *thrust faults w/strike-slip faulting
• *continent-continent collision-folding, metamorphism &
igneous activity
-Transform-sliding (horizontal)
• *strike-slip faults
• *vertical zones of ductile deformation w/sub-horizontal
direction of disp.
The Earth’s crust and plate tectonics: Introduction
Factors influencing structures
-orientation and intensity of forces
-motions to which rocks are subjected
-physical conditions-pressure and temp
-mechanical properties of rock
Brittle deformation
-rock fracture, low temp & pressure
Ductile deformation
-high temp and pressure but below melting temp and low
intensity of applied forces or slow imposed deformations
-flow of rock in solid crystalline state
-stratigraphic layers, stretching & thinning of layers,
parallel alignment of grains