GEOLOGIC

PROCESSES

Endogenic Process
 Endogenic processes
are geological activities
What is originating from within
endogenic
processes? the Earth, driven by its
internal heat and
energy.
 These processes shape the
Earth's surface through forces
like tectonic movements,
What is volcanism, and
endogenic metamorphism. Essentially,
processes? they are the forces that build up
the landscape, as opposed to
those that wear it down
(exogenic processes).
 1. primordial heat (leftover
from Earth's formation) or
Where does heat from when the planet
the earth’s formed and accreted, which
heat came has not been lost (about
from?
10, 000 Kelvins or about
18,000 degrees Farhenheit)
 When the Earth formed billions of
years ago, it was a molten ball of
material. Much of the heat
Where does generated during this accretion
the earth’s process has dissipated over time,
heat came
but some remains trapped within
from?
the Earth, contributing to the
planet's internal temperature.
 2. Frictional heating,
caused by denser core
Where does material sinking to the
the earth’s
heat came center of the planet
from? (2,000 Kelvins or
about 3,000 0F)
 As the Earth formed, denser
materials like iron sank
Where does towards the center, while
the earth’s lighter materials rose towards
heat came the surface. This process of
from?
differentiation created
friction, generating heat.
  Heat from the decay of
radioactive elements
Radioactive decay of elements
like uranium, thorium, and
Where does
the earth’s potassium, which are present in
heat came the Earth's mantle and crust,
from? releases heat as a
byproduct. This process continues
to contribute significantly to the
Earth's internal heat.
Heat flow
on Earth’s
interior
 The core is about 2,900 km (1802
miles) below Earth’s surface. The
deepest humans have dug is a meager
How hot is 12km (7.5 miles). According to current
the center research, the temperature of Earth’s
of the inner core is approximately 5,700 K
Earth? (that’s 5,430 0C or 9,806 0F). And
believe it or not, this is about the same
temperature as the surface of the Sun!
  Except in the crust, the interior of
the Earth cannot be studied by
drilling holes to take samples.
Seismic Instead, scientists map the interior
Waves by watching how seismic waves.
 One ingenious way scientists
learn about Earth’s interior is by
looking at seismic waves.
Seismic
Waves
 These are caused by the sudden
movement of materials within the
Earth, such as slip along fault
during an earthquake . It travels
outward in all directions from where
Seismic the ground breaks and are picked
Waves up by seismographs around the
world. Seismic waves from
earthquakes are bent, reflected,
sped up or delayed by the various
layers.
 Earthquake
What Can
Cause
Seismic
Waves?
 Volcanic eruption

What Can
Cause
Seismic
Waves?
 Explosion
What Can
Cause
Seismic
Waves?
 Landslide
What Can
Cause
Seismic
Waves?
 Avalanche
What Can
Cause
Seismic
Waves?
 Rushing river

What Can
Cause
Seismic
Waves?
 P – wave (primary
Two wave)
types of
seismic S – wave
waves (secondary wave)
 P-waves (primary waves) –
the fastest, traveling about 6
to 7 km per second, so they
P – Wave arrive first at the
(primary seismometer. P waves move
wave) in compression/expansion
type motion, squeezing and
unsqueezing Earth materials
as they travel.
 Seismic waves move
faster trough denser and
more rigid material. As P-
P – Wave
(primary waves encounter the
wave) liquid outer core, which is
less rigid than the
mantle, it slow down.
 Are about half as fast as
P-waves, traveling at about
3.5km per second, and
arrive second at
S – wave
(Secondary seismograph. S-waves
Wave) move in up and down
motion perpendicular to
the direction of wave
travel.
 Only solids resist a
change in shape, so S-
S – wave waves are only able to
(Secondary
Wave) propagate through
solids. S-waves cannot
travel through liquids.
Movemen
t of P and
S Waves
Movemen
t of P and
S Waves
 Crust makes up less than 1% of
Earth by mass, consisting of
oceanic and continental crust, is
often more felsic rock.
Composition
of Crust, Mantle is hot ultramafic rock
Mantle and and represents 68% of Earth’s
Core mass.
Core mostly iron metal. It
makes up about 31% of the
Earth.
 Lithosphere – is about 100 km
thick and composed of both the
crust and the upper portion of
the mantle that behaves as
Lithosphere and brittle, rigid solid. Since it is rigid
Asthenosphere
and brittle, when stresses act on
the lithosphere, it breaks . This
is what we experience,
EARTHQUAKE.
 Asthenosphere is
partially molten
Lithosphere
and upper mantle that
Asthenosph
ere behaves plastically
and can flow.
 Lithosphere
 Pic of lithosphere and asthenosphere
and
Asthenosphere
 The layers of the solid Earth
from least dense to most
dense are: crust, mantle,
outer core and inner core.
Note: The inner core is at center
of the Earth because it is
dense, made of solid and
nickel.
 Crust –Earth’s outer surface: a cold,
thin, brittle outer shell made of rock. It
is very thin, relative to the radius of the
planet.

Crust Oceanic Crust – mafic composed of

magma that erupts on the seafloor
to create basalt lava flows or cools
deeper down to create the intrusive
igneous rock, Gabbro.
 Continental Crust –
often more felsic made
up of many different
Crust types of igneous,
metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks.
 The average composition of
continental crust is GRANITE,
which is much less dense than the
mafic igneous rocks of the oceanic

Crust crust. Because it is thick and has

relatively low density, continental
crust rises higher on the mantle
than oceanic crust, which sinks
into the mantle to form basins
which are both brittle.
Continental
and Oceanic
Crust
 The two most important things
about the mantle are:
(1)it is made of solid rock, and

Mantle (2) (2) it is hot.

Scientists know that the
mantle is made of rock based on
evidence from seismic waves,
heat flow, and meteorites.
 Heat flows in two
different ways
Heat flow
on Earth within the Earth:
conduction and
convection
 Conduction is defined
as the heat transfer that
occurs through rapid
Conduction
collisions of atoms,
which can only happen if
the material is solid.
 Heat flows from warmer
to cooler places until all
are the same
Conduction temperature. The mantle
is hot mostly because of
heat conducted from the
core.
Conduction
 Convection is a process where
heat from the Earth's core and
lower mantle drives the
movement of molten rock, or
Convection magma, in the mantle. As the
core heats the bottom layer of
mantle material, particles move
more rapidly, decreasing its
density and causing it to rise.
 The rising material begins
the convection current.
When the warm material
Convection reaches the surface, it
spreads horizontally. The
material cools because it is
no longer near the core.
 It eventually becomes cool
and dense enough to sink
back down into the
mantle. At the bottom of
Convection
the mantle, the material
travels horizontally and is
heated by the core.
 This heat transfer
occurs due to density
differences; hotter, less
dense material rises,
Convection while cooler, denser
material sinks, creating
convection currents.
Convection
 At the planet’s center
lies a dense metallic core.
The core is about 85
percent iron metal and
15 percent nickel metal.
Core Core is made of metals
while mantle is made of
rocks.
 Scientists know that
the outer core is
liquid and the inner
Core core is solid because
S-waves stop at the
inner core.
 The heat that keeps the
outer core from
solidifying is produced
Core by the breakdown of
radioactive elements in
the inner core.
 Magmas can vary widely
How magma is formed (magmatism)?

in composition, but in
general they are made up of
only eight elements; in order
of importance: oxygen (O),
Composition silicon (Si), aluminum (Al),
of magma iron (Fe), calcium (Ca),
sodium (Na), magnesium
(Mg), and potassium (K).
 Oxygen, the most
abundant element in
magma, comprises a
Composition little less than half the
of magma
total, followed by
silicon at just over one-
quarter.
Composition
of magma
 Magma forms primarily through
the partial melting of rocks in the
How magma is Earth's mantle and crust, driven by
formed changes in temperature, pressure,
(magmatism)? and the presence of water. When
rocks are subjected to these
conditions, they melt, creating a
molten rock mixture called magma.
 How magma
is formed
(magmatism)
?
  .Partial melting is what happens
when only some parts of a rock
How magma is melt; it takes place because
formed rocks are not pure materials.
(magmatism)?
Most rocks are made up of
several minerals, each of which
has a different melting
temperature.
 1. Decompression
The two main melting - occurs when
mechanisms
through pressure on hot rocks
which rocks
melt are: decreases, allowing
them to melt.
Decompression
melting
 2. Flux - induced melting
- happens when water
The two main or other volatile
mechanisms
through substances are added to
which rocks
melt are: hot rocks, lowering their
melting point and
causing them to melt.
 Flux -
induced
melting
 The magma that is produced by
partial melting is less dense than the
surrounding rock. Magma from
Why partial melting of mantle rocks rises

Rocks upward through the mantle, and may

pool at the base of the crust, or rise
Melt? through the crust. Moving magma
carries heat with it, and some of that
heat is transferred to surrounding
rocks.
 If the melting temperature of
a rock is less than the
temperature of the magma,
Why the rock will begin to melt,
Rocks and the composition of the
Melt? magma may change to reflect
a mixture of sources. But
adding heat is not the only
way to trigger melting.