Manufacturing

Considerations in
Design
 DESIGN FOR “X”
 Initial design based on function, appearance & cost
 Other major objectives than those dealt in initial design Design for “X” ,

Where, X= Design objective ( other than those dealt during initial stages of design )

 Some of the objectives are :

• Design for Manufacturing
• Design for Assembly
• Design for Safety and Reliability
• Design for Maintenance & Serviceability
• Design for Logistics
• Design for Disassembly and Recycling
DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURING
DFM is based on :
 Minimizing Cost of production
 Minimizing Time to market while
 Maintaining appropriate level of quality.


First design team is formed: include
engineers, managers, logistics specialists, accountants,
marketing & sales professionals.
 Reduction in parts and their costs
 Use of standard parts/subcontracted items.

 Change in materials if possible.

 Use wider tolerances wherever possible.

Who Casts the biggest shadow ?
 Design for X
X=MANUFACTURING
X=ASSEMBLY
X=RELIABILITY
X=MAINTAINABILITY
X=SERVICEABILITY
X=ENVIRONMENT
X=LIFE CYCLE COST
Design for Manufacturing (DFM)

Design for manufacturability (DFM) is the general

engineering art of designing products in such a way that
they are easy to manufacture.
 Design for Manufacturing (DFM)
Designing or engineering a product in order to facilitate the
manufacturing process
Reduce manufacturing cost
Designer should consider the type of raw material and the
form of the raw material
Optimize all the manufacturing functions:
fabrication, assembly, test, shipping, delivery, service,
and repair
Assure the best cost, quality, reliability, regulatory compliance,
safety, time- to-market, and customer satisfaction.
 Manufacturing Considerations in Design
• Product design, selection of materials and processing the materials into
finished components are closely related to one another.

• Manufacturing can be considered as processing the available materials into

useful components of the product.

• Types of manufacturing processes:

(i) Casting (ii) Deformation (iii) Material Removal (iv) Joining processes
Components made by different manufacturing processes

1. Connecting rod Casting

2. Flywheel
3. Housing of gear
box Deformation
4. Keys
5. Bolts and nuts Material removal
6. Crank shafts
7. Machine tool bed
 Selection of appropriate manufacturing method
• Material of the component

• Cost of manufacturing

• Geometric shape of the component

• Surface finish and tolerances required

• Volume of production
 Types of Casting

• Sand casting

• Shell mould casting

• Permanent mould casting

• Die casting

• Centrifugal casting

• Investment casting
 Advantages of Sand Casting

• Tooling required is relatively simple and inexpensive

• One of the cheapest method of manufacturing

• Almost any material can be casted

• There is no limit on the size of the component

 Disadvantages of Sand Casting

• Not possible to achieve close tolerances

• Casted components require additional machining and finishing processes

that increases the cost

• Casted components have rough surface finish

• Components with long and thin sections or projections can not be casted
 Types of Forging processes

• Drop forging (80% share)

• Hand forging

• Press forging

• Upset forging
 Advantages of Forging

• Forged components have inherent strength and toughness

• Optimum utilization of material

• Can be provided with thin sections without compromising on strength

• Close tolerances can be met that reduces material removal during final
finishing

• Relatively rapid production rate and good reproducibility

 Disadvantages of Forging

• Relatively costly mfg. process as equipments and tooling are

costly

• Economical only when parts are manufactured on a large scale

 Metal removal or Cutting processes

• Most versatile and common manufacturing methods

• Almost every component is subjected to some kind of machining operation in its

final finishing stage

• Types: (i) metal cutting processes (ii) grinding processes (iii) un-

conventional machining processes

 Advantages of Machining Processes

• Almost any metal can be machined

• It is possible to achieve close tolerances

• Machined components have good surface finish

 Disadvantages of Machining Processes

• Machining processes are costly

• Rate of production is low compared with casting or forging

• It is not possible to machine thin sections or projections

• There is significant wastage of material during material removal

process
 Design considerations of Castings
Poor shaping of casted components can adversely affect their strength. So designer
should consult the foundry man and the pattern maker. General principles for design of
castings are as follows:
(a) Always keep stresses areas of the part in compression
 Design considerations of Castings
When the tensile stresses are unavoidable, a clamping device such as ‘tie rod’ can be
considered.
 Design considerations of Castings
When the tensile stresses are unavoidable, a clamping device such as ‘bearing cap’
can be considered.
 Design considerations of Castings
(b) Round all external corners. It has two advantages: (i) it increases endurance limit
and (ii) reduces formation of brittle chilled edges
 Design considerations of Castings
(c) Whenever possible, the section thickness throughout should be held as uniform as
compatible with overall design considerations.
 Design considerations of Castings
(d) ‘Avoid concentration of metal at the junction’ as the same
is likely to result in shrinkage cavity or a blow hole.
 Design considerations of Castings
To avoid concentration of metal at the junction, one way is to provide cored openings
in webs and ribs.
 Design considerations of Castings
Alternatively, staggering can also be considered for ribs and webs.

Staggered ribs
 Design considerations of Castings
(e)Avoid very thin sections. In case from design point of view, the calculated
thickness is small, same should be increased so as the same can be properly casted.
In general, minimum thickness for grey cast iron components is about 7 mm for
parts up to 500 mm long.

(f)Shot blast the parts, wherever possible. It significantly increases endurance

limit particularly in case of thin sections.
Design considerations of Castings

Uniform wall thickness

Design considerations of Castings

Holes in the direction of forces

Design considerations of Castings

Provision of draft
Design considerations of Castings

Outside bosses should be omitted

 Design considerations of Castings - Summary
(a) Always keep stressed areas of the part in compression
(b) Round all external corners
(c)Whenever possible, the section thickness throughout should be held as uniform
as possible
(d)‘Avoid concentration of metal at the junction’
as the same is likely to result in shrinkage cavity or a blow
hole.
(e)Avoid very thin sections. In case from design point of view, the calculated
thickness is small, same should be increased so as the same can be properly casted.
(f)Shot blast the parts, wherever possible. It significantly increases endurance
limit particularly in case of thin sections.
 Design considerations of Forgings
Forged components are used in following circumstances:
 Moving components should be light weight to reduce inertia forces
(connecting rod)
 Components subjected to excessive stresses (IC Engine components)

 Small components that must be supported by other structures (hand

tools)
 Components that must be free from internal cracks (valve bodies)

 Components whose failure may cause injury or expensive damage

 Design considerations of Forgings
(a) While designing a forging, advantage should be taken of direction of fiber lines.
While designing a forging, the profile is selected in such a way that fiber lines are
parallel to tensile forces and perpendicular to shear forces.
 Design considerations of Forgings
(b) The forged component should be provided with an adequate draft for easy removal
of part from the die impression
 Design considerations of Forgings
(c) The parting line should be in one plane as far as possible and it must divide the
forging into two equal parts.
 Design considerations of Forgings
(d)The forgings should be provided with adequate fillet and corner radii, as
sharp corners result in increasing difficulties in filling the material, excessive forging
forces and poor die life.
(e) Thin sections and ribs should be avoided in forged components
 Design considerations of Forgings - Summary

(a) While designing a forging, advantage should be taken of direction of fiber lines

(b) The forged component should be provided with an adequate draft for easy removal
of part from the die impression

(c)The parting line should be in one plane as far as possible and it must divide
the forging into two equal parts

(d) The forgings should be provided with adequate fillet and corner radii

(e) Thin sections and ribs should be avoided in forged components

 Design considerations of Machined parts
Machined components are used in following circumstances:
 Components requiring precision and high dimensional accuracy

 Components requiring flatness, roundness, parallelism or circularity for

their proper functioning
 Components of interchangeable assembly

 Components that requires relative motion with each other

 Design considerations of Machined
parts
(a) As far as possible, secondary machining operations should be avoided
(b) Specify liberal dimensional and geometrical tolerances. Closer the
tolerance, higher the cost
(c) Designer should avoid shapes that requires sharp corners
(d) Stock dimensions should be promoted as far as possible
(e) Components with thin walls or webs should be avoided as the same
induces
significant cutting forces on the component
(f) Avoid shoulders and undercuts as the same requires separate tools
(g) Avoid hard materials as these are difficult to machine
 Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DFMA)
Why DFMA?
 For simplifying design
 Decreasing assembly cost
 Improves product reliability
 Reduces operation time
 Guidelines for DFMA
The guidelines of DFMA are as follows:
 Reduce the parts count (results in lower cost)

 Use of modular designs (simplifies final assembly)

 Optimize part handling (part should retain same orientation throughout)

 Assemble in the open (Reduces chance of mfg. defects slipping past the inspector)

 Do not fight gravity (design so that products can be assembled from bottom to top)

 Design for part identity (symmetrical parts are easier to handle and orient)

 Limited use of fasteners (cost of fastening is 6 to 10 times than cost of fasteners)

 Design parts for simple assembly (misalignment of parts from different vendors
creates problems)
 Reduce, simplify and optimize manufacturing processes
 Tolerances
Why required?
 Due to inaccuracies of manufacturing methods, it is not possible to
machine a component to a given dimension.
 The components are so manufactured that their dimensions lie between two limits
 The basic dimension is called normal or basic size while difference between two
limits is called permissible tolerance
Tolerance is permissible variation in the dimensions of the component

 Can be of two types: (i) unilateral and (ii) bilateral

Tolerances
 Fits
 When two parts are assembled, the relationship resulting from the
difference between their sizes before assembly is called a fit.

 Hole basis system: fits are obtained by associating various shafts with a single hole
whose lower deviation is zero.
 Fits
 Shaft basis system: fits are obtained by associating various holes with a single shaft
whose upper deviation is zero.
 Allowance
 It is intentional difference between the maximum material limits of mating parts

 It is minimum clearance (positive allowance) in case of clearance fit and maximum

interference (negative allowance) in case of interference fit.

 ISO System of fits and tolerances

 Tolerance is specified by an alphabet capital or small followed by a number.

 For ex. 50 H8/g7 or 50 H8-g7 denotes tolerance for basic size of shaft and hole of
50 mm
ISO System of fits and tolerances
 Surface Roughness
‘Surface roughness’ plays an important role in the performance of certain machine
elements. Some of the examples are:
 Friction and wear increases with surface roughness (undesirable in bearings)
 Rough surface offers reduced contact area in interference fits
 Endurance strength significantly reduces with poor surface finish
 Corrosion resistance is adversely affected by poor surface finish

It is necessary for the designer to specify optimum surface finish from the
consideration of functional requirement and cost of manufacturing
 Surface Roughness -Measurement

The centre line average (CLA) is given by:

Magnified surface profile

Surface Roughness - Symbols
Surface Roughness – General values for common machining processes