Chapter-4
Memory and
Forgetting
4.1. Definition
• Memory is a system that encodes, stores and
retrieves information.
• It is a constructive process through which we
actively organize and shape information.
• It is the process by which we recollect prior
experiences and information and skills learned
in the past.
4.2. Memory Process
• According to the information-
processing model, the human brain
takes essentially meaningless
information and turns it into
meaningful patterns.
• It does this through three steps:
• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval
Here is a simplified description of how memory works:
Encoding: the
Encodi information gets into
ng our brains in a way that
allows it to be stored
Storag Storage: the
e information is held in a
way that allows it to
Retrie later be retrieved
val Retrieval: reactivating
and recalling the
information, producing
4.2.1. Encoding
• Encoding: the modification of
information to fit the preferred
format for the memory system.
• Encoding is the organizing of
sensory information so the brain
can process it.
– This is the first step in the flow of
memory
• Learners must encode information
to store it.
When we are exposed to stimuli and
encode information, we do it in three
ways:
1. Semantic Encoding
• encoding of meaning
• including meaning of words
2. Acoustic Encoding
• encoding of sound
• especially sound of words
3. Visual Encoding
• encoding of picture images
4.2.2. Storage:
Storage: the retention of encoding material over time.
We encode information and store it in one of three types
of memory, depending on what we need the information
for.
Our memory works like an assembly line, and before
information can make it to our long-term memory, it must
first pass through sensory memory and working memory.
In terms of storing material, we have
three stages of memory
Sensory Memory
Short-term (Working) Memory
Long-term Memory
Attention to important
Sensory input or novel information
Encoding
External Sensory Short-term Long-term
events memory memory memory
Encoding Retrieving
Diagram of Three-Stage Memory Model
4.2.2a. Sensory
•
Memory
Sensory memory is the shortest of our memories and
generally holds sights, sounds, smells, textures and
other sensory information for a fraction of a second.
• Sensory memory holds a large amount of information,
far more than ever reaches consciousness.
• Briefly preserves a relatively exact replica of sensory
information, it consists of the immediate, initial
recording of data that enter through the senses.
• Sensory memories lasts just long enough to dissolve into
the next one, giving us the impression of a constant flow.
• Attention is needed to transfer information to working
memory
– Selected information is sent on to short-term memory
(STM).
4.2.2b. Short-Term Memory (STM)
• Short-Term Memory (STM): second
memory stage, which temporarily
stores sensory information & decides
whether to send it on to long-term
memory (LTM)
– Holds 5-9 items for about 30
seconds, but duration improves
with maintenance rehearsal
(repeat the item over and over)
– Capacity increased with chunking
©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2010
• Short-term memory is often known as working
memory. It is the place where we sort and encode
information before transferring it to long-term
memory, or forgetting it.
• A system which keeps a representation of
information active and “on line” for immediate
future use
• Generally, it holds information for about 20
seconds, far longer than sensory memory.
• Most research suggest that we can hold seven
pieces of information in our working memory,
though it varies slightly.
• Storage is the maintenance of encoded
information.
Maintenance Rehearsal Elaborative Rehearsal
• A more effective way to
• Mechanical or rote repetition of
information in order to keep
remember new
from forgetting it is called information is to relate it
maintenance rehearsal. to information you already
• The more time spent on it, the know.
longer the information will be • This method is called
remembered.
• It does not connect information
elaborative rehearsal.
to past learning and is • It is widely used in
therefore a poor way to put education.
information in permanent
storage.
• The process of repetitively
verbalizing or thinking about
information
4.2.2c. Long-term
Memory
• As far as anyone knows, there is no
limit to the duration or capacity of
the long term memory.
• Long term memory is essentially all
of your knowledge of yourself and
the world around you. Unless an
injury or illness occurs, this memory
is limitless.
• Declarative (explicit) memory is
the part of long term memory where
we store specific information such as
facts and events.
• More often than procedural memory,
declarative memory requires some
conscious mental effort.
• Declarative memory has two divisions:
Episodic Memory: This is the
portion of memory that stores
personal events or “episodes.”
• This is the storage of things like time
and place.
• Episodic memory is memory of a
Semantic Memory: This portion of
specific event.
memory stores general knowledge, facts
and language meaning.
This is specifically where all the
information you “know” is stored.
Semantic memory is the memory of
facts, words, and concepts.
• Procedural (implicit) memory is
the part of long term memory where
we store memories of how things are
done.
Summary: Types of Memory Processing
Factors Affecting Memory
Ability to retain
Good health
Age of the learner/Maturity
Will to remember/interest
Intelligence
Over learning
Meaningfulness of the material
3.3. Forgetting
• Psychologists generally use the term forgetting
to refer to the apparent loss of information
already encoded and stored in the long-term
memory.
• Forgetting can occur at any one of the three
stages of memory.
• Information encoded in sensory memory
decays almost immediately unless it is
transferred into short-term memory.
• Short-term memory will disappear after only 10
to 12 seconds unless it is transferred into long-
term memory.
•
Theories of Forgetting
Decay Theory:
• The decay theory holds that memory traces
or engram fade with time if they are not
―accessed now and then.
• In decay, the trace simply fades away with
nothing left behind, because of the passage
of time.
• We have already seen that decay occurs in
sensory memory and that it occurs in short
term memory as well, unless we rehearse the
material.
Decay theory…When do we forget?
Interference
• Interference theory holds that forgetting occurs
because similar items of information interfere
with one another in either storage or retrieval.
• The information may get into memory, but it
becomes confused with other information.
• There are two kinds of interference that
influence forgetting: proactive and retroactive.
• In Proactive Interference, information learned
earlier interferes with recall of newer material.
• If new information interferes with the ability to
remember old information the interference is
called Retroactive Interference.
Retroactive and proactive interference. The order of
learning and testing shows whether interference is
retroactive (backward) or proactive (forward).
Displacement Theory
• This theory holds that new information
entering memory can wipe out old
information, just as recording on an
audio or videotape will obliterate/wipe
out the original material.
• This theory is mostly associated with the
STM, where the capacity for information
is limited to seven plus or minus chunks.
• It cannot be associated with the LTM
because of its virtually unlimited
capacity.
The Multi-store Model of Memory
(Modal Model)
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)
Motivated Forgetting
• Sigmund Freud maintained that
people forget because they block
from consciousness those memories
that are two threatening or painful to
live with, and he called this self-
protective process Repression.
• Today many psychologists prefer to
use a more general term, motivated
forgetting.
Cue Dependent Forgetting
• Often when we need to remember, we rely
on retrieval cues, items of information that
can help us find the specific information
we‘re looking for.
• When we lack retrieval cues, we may feel as
if we have lost the call number for an entry
in the mind‘s library.
• In long-term memory, this type of memory
failure may be the most common type of all.
• Cues that were present when you learned a
new fact or had an experience are apt to be
especially useful later as retrieval aids.
Pathological Theories
Physiological pathologies:-
Brain damage,
Brain surgery,
Poison,
Genetically predisposition,
Aging, etc
Psychological pathologies:-
Depression
Trauma
Anxiety
Stress , etc
Improving Memory
• Pay Attention
• Encode information in more than one
way
• Add meaning
• Take your time
• Over learn
• Monitor your learning
=The End=