Electrical

Machines
 ELECTROMECHANICAL
ENERGY CONVERSION
• The law of conservation of energy states
that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
converted from one form to another.

• Electromechanical energy conversion is the

process where devices transform electrical energy
into mechanical energy or vice versa, using a
magnetic field as the coupling medium.
 EXAMPLES OF CONVERSION
•Motor (Electrical to Mechanical):
An electrical motor receives electrical power and
converts it into mechanical power to do work, such as
spinning a pump or a fan.

•Generator (Mechanical to Electrical):

A generator receives mechanical power (from a prime
mover like a turbine) and converts it into electrical
power.
CLASSIFICATION
Principle of Operation
DC Machine
Cut away view
 Parts of a DC generator
• Stator – Yoke, field system and brushes
• Rotor - Armature and commutator
Major Parts of a DC Machine

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Yoke – Outermost Metal Part Of The Machine
– Provides mechanical support for the poles
– Carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles
– Protects all the inner parts from mechanical damage
– Made of cast iron, cast steel or rolled steel
 Field system
• Main field poles and field winding.
• Field poles are made of laminations
of magnetic material to reduce eddy
current loss.
• Pole face is in the form of horse shoe
for uniform flux distribution.
 Field system
• Field winding is placed over each pole and are
connected in series
• Alternative poles act as north and south when
DC current passes through it.
 Armature
• In the form of laminated slotted drum
• Slots are provided over the entire periphery of
the armature
• Conductors are placed in the slots.
• Conductors are connected to the commutator
at the front end.
• A keyway is a slot or groove that is machined into
a cylindrical shaft or a hub (like a pulley, gear, or
coupling).
• prevent relative rotation between the shaft and the
connected component
 Commutator
• Less diameter than armature
• No. of segments is equal to no. of slots in armature
• There is an electrical insulation between every pair of
segments by mica sheets
• Brushes always touch the rotating commutator segments
• Converts ac into dc

Lecture 1_Module 4_BEEE102L 11

 Brushes
• A set of brushes made of carbon or graphite
are fixed.
• They are in gentle touch with the
rotating commutator.
• Brushes are used to tap the
generated electrical energy.
 Fan/Ventilator/composite blade assembly/
Other a generator unit

parts
Front end cover
Rear end cover
Cooling fan
Terminal box
 DC generator
• Generator is a dynamic machine in which
mechanical energy is converted into electrical
energy.
• It operates on the principle of Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction
• Basic requirements:
– Steady magnetic field
– Conductors
– Relative motion (mechanical)
 DC Generator
Working principle
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Construction

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 Working principle
A generator works on the principles of
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
Whenever a conductor is moved in
magnetic field, it cuts the flux and an the
induced. emf is
The magnitude of the induced emf is directly
proportional to the rate of change of flux
linkage.
This emf causes a current flow if the
conductor circuit is closed .
Working principle- Generator
 Working principle

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Function of
commutator
Types of
Windings
For lap winding
No of parallel paths = no of poles

For wave winding

No of parallel paths = 2
Lap windings are used for low
voltage, high current
applications, while wave windings
are used for high voltage, low
current machines

Armature Windings Lap and Wave

Windings [Year - 2]
 EMF
equation
Generated emf Eg = PɸNZ/60A Derivation:
ɸ - flux per pole (Wb)
N – speed in rpm = N/60 – rps
P – No. of poles
Z – total number of conductors
A – number of parallel paths
E = dɸ/dt
Total flux produced = Pɸ N/60
revolution – 1 sec
Time taken for 1 revolution (dt) = 60/N
 EMF equation
E = dɸ/dt
Total flux produced (dɸ) = Pɸ
Time taken for 1 revolution (dt) =
60/N Eg = PɸN/60
No. of conductors per parallel path = Z/A
Eg = PɸNZ/60 A
A – no. of parallel path
Z – total number of conductors
A = 2 for simplex wave
winding A = P for simplex lap
winding
 I/O waveforms

Input

Output
 Types of D.C. Generators
According to the way in which
their fields are excited, generators
i)are classified
Separately excitedinto
D.C. :Generator
ii) Self- excited D.C. Generator
 Shunt connected
 Series connected
 Compound connected
i) Separately excited D.C. Generators are those whose field
magnets are energized from an independent source of D.C.
Current
Field connected to external source
If I
Brush
+
L
Eg O V
Field Winding Eg Ra A
D

-
Brush

Eg = V + IaRa
 ii) Self excited D.C. Generators are those whose field magnets
are energized from the induced voltage itself (Here residual
magnetism should be present and the connection should be such
that the flux produced by induced voltage aids the residual flux)

a) Shunt wound D.C. Generator

Ia = Ish + I
Ish I
+
Ia
Ra L
Shunt Field O V
Eg A
Rsh Eg D

Eg = V + IaRa
Rsh – Shunt Field Resistance
Ra - Armature Resistance
b) Series wound D.C. Generator

Ia=Ise=I Rse

Series Field
+
L
Ra O
Eg V
A
D

Rse – Series Field ResistanceEg = V + IaRa + IaRse

Ra - Armature Resistance
c) Compound wound D.C. Generator

I Ish I

Series Field Series Field

Ish Ia
L V Shunt Field L V
Ia O O
A Eg A
D D
Shunt Field Eg

Short Shunt Long Shunt

Shunt winding is Shunt winding is parallel
parallel only to to series combination of
armature winding armature winding and
Eg = V + IaRa + IRse series
E = Vfield
g +IR +IRa a a se
 Applications of DC shunt
generator
• Used for general lighting
• Used to charge battery
• Used for giving the excitationto the
alternators (AC generators)
• Used for small power supply
 Applications of DC series
generator
• Used as boosters to compensate the voltage
drop in the feeder in various types of
distribution systems such as railway service.
 Principle of Motor

Electric motor is a machine which converts

electrical energy into mechanical energy.
When a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a
mechanical force whose direction is given
by Fleming’s left hand rule.
F = BIN
 Working principle

When the field magnets of a dc motor are

excited and its armature conductors are
supplied with current from the supply mains,
they experience a force tending to rotate the
armature.
MOTOR - PRINCIPLE
 Constructional wise, D.C. Generator and D.C. motor have
no basic difference

When the coil is powered, a magnetic field is Armature is now rotating in the
generated around the armature. magnetic field and hence there
The left side of the armature is pushed will be an induced emf in the
away from the left magnet and drawn toward armature winding.
the right, causing rotation. The nature of the induced emf is
When the armature becomes horizontally to oppose the cause producing it
aligned, the commutator reverses the and hence opposes the applied
direction of current through the coil, voltage which is the cause for
reversing the magnetic field. rotation and hence called as the
The process then repeats. back emf
 DC motor

Eb = Vt - IaRa

DC Generator In a motor, current

is supplied to the
Eg= Vt + IaRa armature, Whereas
in a generator it is
produced in the
armature.
 Back
emf
• When the motor armature rotates,
the conductors cut the flux.
• In accordance with the law of electromagnetic
induction, emf is induced in the armature.
• The induced emf opposes the cause
producing it i.e. the applied voltage.
• It is called as back emf or counter emf.
• Voltage equation: V = Eb+IaRa
 Back
emf
As the back emf is same as induced voltage in the case of
generators, the equation of back emf is same as the
generated voltage equation of a generator
Eb  60 A 
N  
i.e. φZN  P  or   ZP 
Eb    volt
60  A  E b V  I a Ra
N 
 
So we can vary the speed by varying either of these three
quantities and hence three types of speed control

V – Supply voltage control

IaRa – Armature voltage control
Φ – flux control
 TYPES OF DC MOTORS

• DC motors are classified according to the way in which

their fields excited

• DC motors can be classified as

1. Separately excited dc motor
2. DC series motor
3. DC shunt motor
4. DC compound motor

EE-303.31 45
 SEPARATELY EXCITED DC MOTOR
• These motors have field coils similar to the field coils
of a shunt wound motor.

• The field coils are excited by the separate dc source.

• Armature current Ia = I = line current

• Back emf equation Eb = V – IaRa

• Is shown in figure 1

EE-303.31 46
SEPARATELY EXCITED DC MOTOR

Rheostat

Field Armature

Fig.1

EE-303.31 47
 DC SERIES MOTOR

• The field coils consisting of few turns of thick wire are

connected in series with the armature

• The field coils have low resistance

• The cross sectional area of the wire used for field coils
has to be fairly large to carry the armature current

• armature current Ia = series field current Ise = I

EE-303.31 48
DC SERIES MOTOR
Series Field

Armature

Fig.2

EE-303.31 49
 DC SHUNT MOTOR

• The word ‘shunt’ means ‘parallel’

• The field coils are connected in parallel with armature
• The field coils consists of large number of turns
• The field coiles have high resistance
• I = Ia + Ish
• Shunt field current Ish = V/Rsh
where V = supply voltage
Rsh = shunt field resistance
• Back emf equation Eb = V - IaRa

EE-303.31 50
Shunt Armature
Field

Fig.3

EE-303.31 51
 DC COMPOUND MOTOR

• DC compound motor has both shunt and series field

coils

• The shunt field is normally the stronger of the two i.e

has more ampere turns

• DC compound motor has two types

(a) long shunt dc compound motor

(b) short shunt dc compound motor

EE-303.31 52
LONG SHUNT DC COMPOUND MOTOR

• The shunt field winding is in parallel with both the

armature and series field winding as shown in fig

• Ish = V/Rsh

• Ia = Ise = I –Ish

• Eb = V – Ia(Ra+Rse)

EE-303.31 53
 LONG SHUNT DC SHUNT MOTOR

Ise

Series
Field

Shunt
Field

Fig.4
EE-303.31 54
SHORT SHUNT COMPOUND DC MOTOR
• The shunt field winding is in parallel with the armature
alone and the combination is in series with the series
field

• Ia = I –Ish

• Ish = (V – IseRse)/Rsh

• Eb = V – IaRa - IseRse

EE-303.31 55
 SHORT SHUNT DC MOTOR

Ise
Series
Field

Shunt
Field

Fig.5
EE-303.31 56
 SUMMARY
• The dc motors are classified as
1. Separately excited dc motor
2. dc series motor
3. dc shunt motor
4. dc compound motor

• The formula of back emf for separately excited dc

motor is
Eb = V – IaRa

• The formula of back emf for dc series motor is

Eb = V –Ia(Ra+Rse)

EE-303.31 57
• The formula of back emf for dc shunt motor is
Eb = V – IaRa

• The formula of back emf for dc long shunt compound

motor is
Eb = V – Ia(Ra+Rse)

• The formula of back emf for dc short shunt compound

motor is
Eb = V – IaRa - IseRse

EE-303.31 58
 Applications

DC series motor
• Hoists, cranes, traction
DC shunt motor
• Centrifugal pumps, fans,
blowers, machine tools,
printing press
• DC compound motor
• Conveyors, crushers, punch
presses, hoists, rolling mills
 Necessity of
starter
• Back Emf, Eb= V - IaRa
Ia = (V - Eb)/Ra
• When a dc motor is at rest, the back emf is
zero.
• A heavy current will flow through the
armature conductors under this condition.
• It is necessary to connect a high resistance in
series with the armature of motor at the
starting period.
 TORQUE EQUATION OF A DC MOTOR
Torque is nothing but turning or twisting force about an axis. Torque is measured by the
product of force and radius which the force acts. Consider a wheel of radius 'r' meters
acted on by a circumferential force 'F' Newton

Let the force 'F' cause the wheel to rotate at 'N' rpm. The angular velocity of the
wheel is:
Torque, T = F x r N-m
Work done per revolution = F x distance moved = F x 2πr joules.
Power developed, P = Work done / Time = (F x 2πr) / Time for one revolution = (F
x 2πr) / (60/N)
rps = rpm/60 ; rps = N/60 ;
for one revolution = 60/N
P = (F x r) 2πN/60
P=T ω Watts.
where, T = torque in N - m

ω = angular speed in rad/sec.

The torque developed by a DC Motor is obtained by looking at the electrical power supplied to it
mechanical power produced by it. It is also called armature torque.
The gross mechanical power developed in the armature is E b Ia.
Then, power in armature = Armature torque x ω.

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 TORQUE EQUATION

The above equation is torque equation of a DC motors.

'T' is proportional to φ I . Hence the torque of a given DC motor is proportional to the
a

product of the armature current and the flux.

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 SHAFT TORQUE (TSH)
The torque developed by the armature is called armature torque. It is denoted as T a.
The full armature Torque is not available for doing useful work. Some amount of
torque is used for supplying iron and friction losses in the motor.
This torque is called torque lost. It is denoted as T f The remaining torque is available in
the shaft. It is used for doing useful work. This torque is known as shaft torque. It is
denoted as Tsh. The armature torque is the sum of the torque lost and shaft torque.
Ta = Tf + Tsh
The output power of the motor is:

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Speed and Torque Equations

64
 TORQUE EQUATION
The torque equation of a DC motor is given by:
T α φ Ia
Here, the flux is directly proportional to the current flowing through the
field winding.
φ α If
For DC shunt motor, the shunt field current Ish is constant as long as
input voltage is constant. Therefore flux is also constant.
T α Ia
So, for DC shunt motor torque is directly proportional to the armature
current. For DC series motor, the series field current is equal to the
armature current Ia. Here, the flux φ is proportional to the armature
current Ia.
Here T α φ Ia becomes:
T α Ia2
So, for DC series motor, the torque is directly proportional to the square
of the armature current. The speed and torque equations are
mainly used for analyzing the various characteristics of DC
motors.
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 TRANSFORMERS

 This is how first

experiment by Faraday
was done
 He only got a
deflection of the
galvanometer when
the switch is opened or
closed
 Steady current does
66
not make induced
Experimental Observation of
Induction

This effect can be quantified by Faraday’s Law

67
 Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday discovered that a changing magnetic flux
leads to a voltage in a wire loop
 Induced voltage (emf) causes a current to flow !!

Symmetry: electricity magnetism

 electric current magnetic field

 magnetic field electric current

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 What does Faraday’s law say?

Faraday’s law says that

a) an emf is induced in a loop when it
moves through an electric field
b) the induced emf produces a current
whose magnetic field opposes the
original change
c) the induced emf is proportional to the
rate of change of magnetic flux

69
 TYPES OF INDUCED EMF
Statically induced emf
 Conductor remains stationary and flux linked with it is
changed
(the current which creates the flux changes i.e
increases or decreases)
TYPES
Self induced
 Mutually induced

Dynamically induced emf

 Fieldis stationary and conductors cut across it
 Either the coil or the magnet moves.

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 Induction in Stationary Circuit
Switch closed (or opened)
 Current induced in coil B

Steady state current in coil A

 No current induced in coil B

A
B

71
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

It is based on
principle of MUTUAL
INDUCTION.
According to which
an e.m.f. is induced
in a coil when
current in the
neighbouring coil
changes.
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 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF A
TRANSFORMER
• Transformer is a static device that transfers
electric power from one circuit to another
circuit without change of frequency.
• It consists of two inductive coils; high voltage
winding and low voltage winding.
• The coils are electrically separated but
coupled magnetically.
• A laminated core provides magnetic path for
the flux, to get linked with the other winding.
Construction details of a transformer
 Types of transformer
• Based on the supply – 1-ph and 3-ph
• Based on the output voltage level – step
up and step down
• Based on usage – power
the transformer, transformer,
distribution instrument
transformer
 Types of
Core type Shell type
transformer
Constructional The windings surround a Core surrounds the winding
details considerable part of the core

- Better mechanical support

Low voltage winding is placed Low voltage winding is placed
nearer to the core for better nearer to the core for better
insulation insulation

‘L’ type or ‘U’ type and ‘I’ type ‘E’ type and ‘I’ type
laminated core is used laminated core is used

Applications High voltage Low voltage

27.10.23 Lecture 3_Module 4_BEEE102L 5
 Types of transformer
Core type Shell type

Constructional
details
 Types of transformer
Core type Shell type

Constructional
details

Schematic
representation
 Ideal Transformers

Zero leakage flux:

-Fluxes produced by the primary and secondary currents
are confined within the core
The windings have no resistance:
- Induced voltages equal applied voltages
The core has infinite permeability
- Reluctance of the core is zero
- Negligible current is required to establish magnetic
flux
Loss-less magnetic core
- No hysteresis or eddy currents

79
 EMF Equation of a Transformer
• Φm - max flux
• Φm = Bm A
• f – frequency of AC input
• E1 = Frequency of the supply voltage
• E2 = R.M.S. value of the primary induced e.m.f.
• Flux increases from zero to max value in one quarter of
the cycle
• Average rate of change in flux = Φm/T/4
• = Φm/1/4f = 4fΦm
• Average emf/turn = 4fΦm Consider the ¼th cycle of the flux. Complete cycle gets
completed in 1/f seconds. In ¼ th time period, the change
• RMS/Average = 1.11 in flux is from 0 to ϕm
From Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction
the average e.m.f. induced in each turn is
proportional to the average rate of change of flux.
Average e.m.f. per turn
• Average emf/turn = 4fΦm
• Form factor = RMS/Average = 1.11
• R.M.S. value = 1.11 × Average value
• RMS emf/turn = 4.44 fΦm
• N1 = No. of turns in primary
• N2 = No. of turns in secondary
• Emf induced in primary winding E1= 4.44 fΦmN1
• Emf induced in secondary winding E2= 4.44 fΦmN2
• Transformation ratio K = E2/ E1 = N2/N1 =
Turns ratio
• kVA rating is same in both primary and secondary
• E1I1 = E2I2
• k = E2/ E1 = N2/N1 = I1/I2