Social Process

• Social processes are the ways in which individuals and

groups interact, adjust and readjust and establish
relationships and pattern of behaviour which are again
modified through social interactions.

• The concept of social process refers to some of the general

and recurrent forms that social interaction may take. The
interaction or mutual activity is the essence of social life.
Interaction between individuals and groups occurs in the
form of social process. Social processes refers to forms of
social interaction that occur again and again.
Social Interaction
• Man is a social animal. It is difficult for him to
live in isolation. They always live in groups.

• As members of these groups they act in a

certain manner.

• Their behaviour is mutually affected. This

interaction or mutual activity is the essence of
social life.

• Social life is not possible without interactions.

• Eldredge and Merrill say, “Social interaction is thus the general
process whereby two or more persons are in meaningful contact-as
a result of which their behaviour is modified, however, slightly”.

• Social interaction may be defined as that dynamic interplay of

forces in which contact between persons and groups result in a
modifications of the attitudes and behaviour of the participants.

• The two basic condition of social interaction are

(i) social contact and
(ii) communication

• Social interaction usually takes place in the forms of cooperation’s,

competition, conflict, accommodation and assimilation. These
forms of social interaction are called “social processes”.
Social Process
• Social processes refer to forms of social interaction that occur
repeatedly.

• By social processes we mean those ways in which individuals

and groups interact and establish social relationships.

• As Ginsberg says, “Social processes mean the various modes of

interaction between individuals or groups including cooperation
and conflict, social differentiation and integration,
development, arrest and decay”.

• According to Horton and Hunt, “The term social process refers

to the repetitive form of behaviour which are commonly found
in social life”.
• Social process can be positive (associative) or
negative (dissociative).
Associative Dissociative
Cooperation Competition
Accommodation Conflict
Assimilation
Associative Social Process
 Cooperation
• Cooperation is one of fundamental processes of social life.

• Co-operation means working together in the pursuit of like or common interests.

• According to Merrill and Eldregde, “Cooperation is a form of social interaction

wherein two or more persons work together to gain a common end”.

• In the words of Fairchild, “Cooperation is the process by which the individuals or

groups combine their effort in a more or less organised way for the attainment
of common objective”, Cooperation involves two elements: (i) Common end and
(ii) Organised effort.

• When different persons have the same goals and also realise that individually
they cannot achieve these goals, they work jointly for the fulfillment of these
goals.
• Characteristics:

1. Cooperation is an associative process of social interaction which takes

place between two or more individuals or groups.
2. Cooperation is a conscious process in which individuals or groups have
to work consciously.
3. Cooperation is a personal process in which individuals and groups
personally meet and work together for a common objective.
4. Cooperation is a continuous process. There is continuity in the
collective efforts in cooperation.
5. Cooperation is a universal process which is found in all groups,
societies and nations.
6. Cooperation is based upon two elements such as common end and
organised effort.
7. Common ends can be better achieved by cooperation and it is
necessary for the progress of individual as well as society.
• Types of Cooperation:
Maclver and Page have divided cooperation into two main types namely
(i) Direct Cooperation:
Under direct cooperation may be included all those activities in which people do like things together. For example,
playing together, working together, carrying a load together or pulling the car out of mud together. The essential
character of this kind of cooperation is that people do such identical function which they can also do separately. This
type of cooperation is voluntary e.g., cooperation between husband and wife, teacher and student, master and servant
etc.

(ii) Indirect Cooperation:

Under indirect cooperation are included those activities in which people do unlike tasks together towards a common
end. For example, when carpenters, plumbers and masons cooperate to build a house. This cooperation is based on
the principle of the division of labour.

Ogburn and Nimikoff divided cooperation into three main types:

i. General Cooperation:
When some people cooperate for the common goals then there is cooperation, which is known as general cooperation
e.g. cooperation found in cultural functions is the general cooperation.

ii. Friendly Cooperation:

When we want to attain the happiness and contentment of our group we give cooperation to each other, then this
type of cooperation is known as friendly cooperation e.g. dancing, singing, dating etc.

iii. Helping Cooperation:

When some people work for the victims of famine or flood then this type of cooperation is known as helping
cooperation.
A.W. Green has classified cooperation into three main categories such as (i) Primary
cooperation (ii) Secondary cooperation (iii) Tertiary cooperation.

(i) Primary Cooperation:

This type of cooperation is found in primary groups such as the family. In this form, there is an
identifying of interests between the individuals and the group. The achievement of the
interests of the group includes the realization of the individual’s interests.

(ii) Secondary Cooperation:

Secondary cooperation is found in secondary groups such as Government, industry, trade
union and church etc. For example, in an industry, each may work in cooperation with others
for his own wages, salaries, promotion, profits and in some cases prestige and power. In this
form of cooperation there is disparity of interests between the individuals.

(iii) Tertiary Cooperation:

This type of cooperation is ground in the interaction between the various big and small groups
to meet a particular situation. In it, the attitudes of the cooperating parties are purely
opportunistic; the organisation of their cooperation is both loose and fragile. For example,
two political parties with different ideologies may get united to defeat their rival party in an
election.
• Role of Cooperation:
• Cooperation is the most elementary form of social process without which society cannot
exist. According to Kropotkin, it is so important in the life of an individual is that it is
difficult to survive without it. Even among the lowest animals such as ants and termites,
cooperation is evident for survival.
• Cooperation is the foundation of our social life. The continuation of the human race
requires the cooperation of male and female for reproduction and upbringing of children.
Cooperation for human beings is both a psychological and social necessity. It is needed at
every step in our life.
• If one does not cooperate with others, he is left to live a solitary life. The physical mental
and even the spiritual needs of the individual remain unsatisfied if he does not agree to
cooperate with his fellow-members. It is very difficult for a man to lead a happily conjugal
life without the active cooperation of his wife and via-versa.
• Cooperation helps society to progress. Progress can better be achieved through united
action. The outstanding progress in science and technology, agriculture and industry,
transport and communication would not have been possible without Cooperation.
• All the progress that mankind has made in the various fields is to be attributed to the
cooperating spirit of the people. Cooperation is an urgent need of the present- day world.
It is not only needed among the individuals and groups but also among the nations. It
provides solutions for many international problems and disputes.
 Accommodation
• Adjustment is the way of life. It can take place in two ways
such as adaptation and accommodation. Adaptation refers to
the process of biological adjustment. Accommodation, on
the other hand, implies the process of social adjustment.

• It is a process through which individuals or groups make

adjustment to the changed situation to overcome difficulties
faced by them. Sometimes new conditions and
circumstances arise in the society. Individuals have learned
to make adjustment to the new situation. Thus,
accommodation means adjusting oneself to the new
environment.
• Characteristics:
• (i) It is the End-result of Conflict:
• (ii) It is both Conscious and Unconscious Process:
• (iii) It is a Universal Activity:
• (iv) It is a Continuous Process:
• (v) It is a Mixture of both Love and Hatred:
• Forms or Methods of Accommodation:
1. Admission of one’s Defeat:
This method of accommodation is applicable between the conflicting parties of
unequal strength. The stronger group can pressurize the weaker group by its
strength. The weaker party submits to the stronger one out of fear or because of fear
of being over-powered.

2. Compromise:
This method is applicable when the combatants are of equal strength.

3. Arbitration and Conciliation:

Accommodation is also achieved by means of arbitration and conciliation which
involves attempts of the third party to resolve the conflict between the contending
parties.

4. Toleration:
Toleration is the method of accommodation in which there is no settlement of
dispute but there is only the avoidance of overt conflict or open conflict. Toleration is
found in the field of religion where different religious groups exist side by side, having
different policies and ideologies.
• Forms or Methods of Accommodation:
5. Conversion:
Conversion is a method of accommodation in which one of the contending
parties tries to convent his opponents to his view of point by proving that he is
right and they are wrong. As a result, the party which has been convinced is
likely to accept the view point of other party.

6. Rationalisation:
For example, the poor people, attributes their poverty to the will of God.
Sometimes, students believe that their failure in the examination is due to the
defects in the valuation of their answer scripts by examiners, they do not see the
fact that their preparation for examination is quite inadequate.

7. Superordination and Subordination:

The most common method of accommodation which is found in each and every
society is superordination and subordination. In the family the relationships
among parents and children are based on this method. In larger groupings
whether social or economic the relationships are fixed on the same basis.
 Assimilation
• Assimilation is that process by which individuals belonging to
different cultures are united into one.

• According to Biesanz and Biesanz, “Assimilation is the social process

whereby individuals or groups come to share the same sentiments
and goals”.

• “Assimilation”, says E.S. Bogardus, “is a process whereby attitudes of

many persons are united, and thus, develop into a united group”.

• As Ogburn and Nimkoff define, “Assimilation is the process whereby

individuals or groups once dissimilar become similar, that it become
identified in the interests and outlook”.
• Characteristics of Assimilation:
1. Assimilation is an associative process.
2. Assimilation is a universal process. It is found in every place and at all
times.
3. Assimilation is a slow and gradual process. It is gradual as the individual
comes to share the expectations of another group and slowly acquires a
new set of values. The process cannot take place overnight. The
assimilation of the Anglo-Saxon and Norman cultures has taken more
than two centuries in Britain.
4. Assimilation is a unconscious process. Individuals are not conscious that
they discard their own values and acquire new set of values.
5. Assimilation is a two-way process. It is based on the principle of give and
take. Assimilation takes place when groups of individuals borrow cultural
elements from each other and incorporates them to their own culture.
Contact between two groups essentially affects both. Both the groups
discard their cultural element and substitute them with new ones.
• The following factors may account for the
ready occurrence of assimilation:
1. Toleration
2. Close Social Contact
3. Amalgamation
4. Equal Economic Opportunity
5. Common Physical Traits
6. Cultural similarity
• Factors Hindering Assimilation:
1. Physical Differences
2. Cultural Differences
3. Prejudice
4. Sense of superiority and inferiority
5. Domination and subordination
6. Isolation
Disassociative Social Process
 Competition
• Competition occurs whenever there is an insufficient supply of anything
that human beings desire, in sufficient in the sense that all cannot have as
much of it as they wish.

• Ogburn and Nimkoff say that competition occurs when demand out turns
supply.

• According to, Sutherland, Woodword and Maxwell. “Competition is an

impersonal, unconscious, continuous straggle between individuals and
groups for satisfaction which, because of their limited supply, all may not
have”.

• According to Biesanz and Biesanz, “Competition is the striving of two or

more persons for the same goal with is limited so that all cannot share it”.
• Characteristics:
(i) It is Universal:
Competition is found in every society and in every age. It is found in every group. It
is one aspect of struggle which is universal not only in human society but also in
the plant and animal worlds. It is the natural result of the universal struggle for
existence.

(ii) It is Impersonal:
Competition is not a personal action. It is an ‘interaction without social contact.”
The competitors are not in contact and do not know one another. They do not
compete with each other on a personal level. The attention of all the competitors is
fixed on the goal or the reward they aim at. Due to this reason competition is
known as an impersonal affair.

(iii) It is an Unconscious Activity:

Competition takes place on the unconscious level. Achievement of goal or the
reward is regarded as the main object of competitors. Rarely they do know about
other competitors.
• Forms of Competition

• 1. Economic Competition:
Generally, economic competition is found in the field of economic activities.

• 2. Cultural Competition:
Cultural competition is found among different cultures: It occurs when two or more cultures try to establish their
superiority over others. This type of competition leads to cultural diversities in society.

• 3. Social Competition:
Social competition is mainly found in modern societies. It is the basic feature of present day world. For acquiring a
high status, popularity, name and fame in society people compete with each other. Social competition plays a vital
role in the determination of individual’s status in society.

• 4. Racial Competition:
Racial competition is found among different races of the world. It takes place when one race tries to establish its
superiority over the other. The whole human society is divided into a number of races and there always arises an
intense competition among them. The competition between the Indo-Aryan race and Dravidian race in India is
example of racial competition. Similarly, in South Africa, there is a competition between the white and black races.

• 5. Political Competition:
Political takes place in the political field. In all democratic countries, competition is inevitable among the various
political parties and even between the different members of a political party to obtain political power. Similarly, at
the international level, there is always diplomatic competition between different nations. In India, competition
between Congress (I) and B.J.P. for political power is a bright example of political competition.
• Role of Competition:
(i) Assignment of right individual to proper place:
(ii) Source of motivation:
(iii) Conducive to progress:

• Negative functions of competition .

(i) Competition may lead to frustration:
(ii) Competition may lead to monopoly:
(iii) Competition may lead to conflict:
 Conflict
• Conflict arises only when the attention of the
competitors is diverted from the object of
competition to themselves.

• As a process, it is the anti-thesis of cooperation. It is

a process of seeking to obtain rewards by
eliminating or weakening the competitors. It is a
deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the
will of another or others. Conflict is a competition in
its occasional, personal and hostile forms.
• According to J.H. Fitcher, “Conflict is the social process in
which individual or groups seek their ends by directly
challenging the antagonist by violence or threat of violence”.
As K. Davis defines, “Conflict is u codified form of struggle”.

• According to A.W. Green, “Conflict is the deliberate attempt

to oppose, resist or coerce the will of another or others”.

• Gillin and Gillin say, “Conflict is the social process in which

individuals or groups seek their ends by directly challenging
the antagonist by violence or threat of violence”.
 Characteristics:

• It is a Universal Process:
Conflict is an ever-present process. It exists at all places and all times. It has been in existence since
time immemorial. The cause of the universality of conflict is the increase of man’s selfishness and
his materialist tendency. Karl Marx has rightly mentioned, that ‘violence is the mid-wife of history’.

• It is a Personal Activity:
Conflict is personal and its aim is to eliminate the opposite party. The defeat of the opponent is the
main objective in conflict. When competition is personalised it becomes conflict. The parties,
locked in conflict, lose sight of their definite goal or objective and try to defeat one another.

• It is a Conscious Activity:
Conflict is a deliberate attempt to oppose or resist the will of another. It aims at causing loss or
injury to persons or groups. The attention of every party is fixed on the rival rather than on the
reward or goal, they seek for. So consciously, knowingly or deliberately the parties make struggle
with each other in conflict.

• It is an Intermittent Process:
There is no continuity in conflict. It is occasional. It lacks continuity. It is not as continuous as
competition and cooperation. It may take place all of a sudden and may come to an end after
sometime. If the conflict becomes continuous, no society can sustain itself. So it is an intermittent
process.
• Acculturation
• This term is used to describe both the process of contacts
between different cultures and also the customs of such
contacts.

• As the process of contact between cultures, acculturation may

involve either direct social interaction or exposure to other
cultures by means of the mass media of communication.

• As the outcome of such contact, acculturation refers to the

assimilation by one group of the culture of another which
modifies the existing culture and so changes group identity.
There may be a tension between old and new cultures which
leads to the adapting of the new as well as the old.
• Enculturation
• Enculturation is the process by which people learn the
requirements of their surrounding culture and acquire
values and behaviours appropriate or necessary in that
culture. As part of this process, the influences that limit,
direct, or shape the individual (whether deliberately or not)
include parents, other adults, and peers. If successful,
enculturation results in competence in the language, values,
and rituals of the culture.

• Enculturation is related to socialization. In some academic

fields, socialization refers to the deliberate shaping of the
individual. In others, the word may cover both deliberate
and informal enculturation
• Assimilation
• According to Young and Mack, Assimilation is the fusion or
blending of two previously distinct groups into one.

• For Bogardus Assimilation is the social process whereby attitudes

of many persons are united and thus develop into a united group.

• Biesanz describes Assimilation is the social process whereby

individuals or groups come to share the same sentiments and
goals.

• For Ogburn and Nimkoff; Assimilation is the process whereby

individuals or groups once dissimilar become similar and
identified in their interest and outlook.
 Socialisation
• Socialization is predominately an unconscious process by which a
newborn child learns the values, beliefs, rules and regulations of
society or internalizes the culture in which it is born.
• Socialization, therefore, equips an individual in such a way that he can
perform his duties in his society.

• Some sociologists formulated different stages of socialization. These

are
(1) oral stage,
(2) anal stage
(3) oedipal stage, and
(4) adolescence.
• In all these stages, especially in the first three, the main socializing
agent is the family.
• Resocialization

Resocialization is a process that involves breaking with behaviors and ways of

thinking that are unsuited to existing or changing circumstances, and
replacing them with new, more appropriate ways of behaving and thinking.
Much resocialization happens naturally and involves no formal training;
people simply learn as they go.

Resocialization can be voluntary or imposed. Voluntary resocialization occurs

when people choose to participate in a process or program designed to
remake them. Examples of voluntary resocialization are wide-ranging: the
unemployed youth who enlists in the army to acquire a technical skill.

Imposed resocialization occurs when people are forced into a program designed
to train them, rehabilitate them, or correct some supposed deficiency in
their earlier socialization. People drafted into the military, sentenced to
prisons represent examples of those who undergo resocialization that is
forced upon them.
• Anticipatory socialization occurs when we start learning new
norms and values in anticipation of a role we’ll occupy in the
future. Making necessary adjustments in advance makes the
actual transition into the new role easier. Also, by adopting some
of the norms and values of a future role, we can evaluate whether
that role will be right for us when the time comes to assume it.

Example: A police officer who is about to begin working the night

shift adjusts his sleeping habits several weeks before his start
date. He goes to bed an hour later each evening, anticipating his
new schedule of staying awake all night and sleeping during the
day.
Likewise, some couples live together before getting married to see
whether they feel comfortable in that future role. They test the
role of spouse before committing to it legally.
• Adult Socialisation
• It is wrong to presume that the process of socialisation comes to an end when
once the individual reaches the adulthood from that of the adolescent stage. In
fact, socialisation is a life-long process. At no point in the life of a man it comes
to an end.

• In the modern society adulthood is considered to be attained when a person

can support himself or herself entirely independent of the parental family. Full
adulthood also implies the ability to form a family of one’s own.

• The socialisation of adults is relatively easier than the socialisation of children

for three reasons:
(i) the adult are normally motivated to work towards a goal which he has already
picked up.
(ii) The new role that he is trying to internalise has many similarities to the roles
which he has already internalized-
(iii) finally; the socialising agent can communicate with him easily through speech.
 Agents of Socialisation
• Parents
• Peers and Age mates
• Teachers
• Literature and Mass Media