RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

LUCY K. KIMATHI
WELCOME BACK
 What is research?

• Word research means search again or examine

carefully
• According to Redman and Mory, Research is a
“Systematized effort to gain new knowledge”
• Research is an original addition to the available
knowledge, which contributes to it’s further
advancement .
• An attempt to find out answers to problems
through application of scientific methods of
investigation, inquiry, examination or
observation.
• It gives you an opportunity to confirm, clarify,
pursue – or even discover –new aspects of a
subject or topic you are interested in
• A Diligent and systematic inquiry or investigation
into a subject in order to discover facts or
principles.
• It is also a studious inquiry or examination,
especially a critical investigation.
• Its aim as the discovery of new facts and their
correct interpretation, the revision of accepted
conclusions, theories, or laws in the light of new
discovered facts, or the practical application of
such conclusions, theories or laws” (Williams,
2010)
• Research is a process of collecting, analyzing
and interpreting information to answer
questions OR
• A systematic and organized effort to
investigate a problem that makes a solution.
 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE.
1. Research is an important source of knowledge
because it is objective and involves systematic
procedures.
2. Experience is a common mode of obtaining
knowledge.
3. Tradition is another source of knowledge. All
humans inherit a culture. (an adopted system
of rules, norms and standards).
Knowledge is acquired via socialization.
4. Expertise or authority. Expert in a specialized
area.

5. Intuition; perception or explanation or insight into

a phenomena.
 RESEARCH AND PROBLEM
SOLVING.
• The nursing research process can be outlined
using the nursing process steps of assessment,
planning, intervention and evaluation.
• In the assessment phase the problem is
identified, the literature is reviewed, and the
variables are identified.
• In the planning phase the research question or
hypothesis is formulated, and decisions are
made on how the variables will be measured
and how the sample will be chosen.
• In the intervention phase the data collection
occurs.
• In the evaluation phase the data is analyzed and
interpreted and the findings are communicated.
 PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
• Discover new knowledge-it unravels mysteries which may
not have been discovered fully during ordinary course of
life

• Describe a phenomenon-it helps to portray the

characteristics of a particular individual, situation or
group

• Enable prediction – help formulate general rules that

enable us make reliable predictions of events
• Establishes general laws and contribute to
theory building
• Verifies and tests existing facts and theory
• Determines frequency in which something
occurs
• Helps test hypothesis of a casual relations
between variables
• Helps find solutions to existing problems
 assignment
1. State the role of research in nursing

2. State the role of nursing in research

3. Describe historical events of research in

nursing
 Characteristics of research
• research involves gathering of new data
• is directed towards solution of problem
• characterised by carefully designed procedures and
careful analysis
• demands accurate observation and description
• requires expertise
• characterised by patience and unhurried activity
• sometimes requires courage
• research is carefully recorded and reported
 Characteristics of a good
researcher
• should have an inquisitive curious mind
• have genuine enthusiasm to complete
research process
• be creative and critical thinker
• have discipline and patience
• be clinical expert in area being researched
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
Can be broadly classified as:
1. Qualitative research
2. Quantitative research
 1. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH.
• a systematic, subjective approach used to
describe life experiences and give them
meaning.
• Focuses on the whole issue under investigation.
• the data collected is in the form of words rather
than numbers. The data collected is then
grouped into categories, themes and patterns
(Maalim, 1999).
 Features of qualitative methods
• Has few preconceived ideas and stresses the
importance of people's interpretations of
events and circumstances, rather than
researcher's interpretations.

• Does not attempt to control the context of the

research, but rather attempts to capture that
context in its entirety.
• Assumes that subjectivity is essential for
understanding of human experience.
• Involves sustained interaction with the people
being studied in their own language.
• Collects information mainly without formal
structured instruments.
• Attempts to understand the phenomenon in
its entirety
 2. Quantitative research

• These are designs and techniques that yield

discreet numerical or quantifiable data
(mugenda,1999).
Features of quantitative methods
• Focuses on a relatively small number of
concepts (concise and narrow).
• Begins with preconceived ideas about how the
concepts are interrelated.
• Uses structured procedures and formal
instruments to collect data.
• Collects information under controlled
conditions.
 Ctied
• Emphasizes objectivity in the collection and
analysis of information.
• Analyses numeric information through
statistical procedures.
• Investigator does not participate in the events
under investigation and is most likely to collect
data from a real distance.
• Incorporates logistic, deductive reasoning.(from
general to specific)
 1. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO
PURPOSE

• Research can be classified according to the

desire or purpose of the research as:
I. Basic research
II. Applied research
III. Action research
IV. Evaluative research
 1. Basic research
• It is also known as pure, theoretical or
fundamental research
• It is a process of collecting data to enrich the
existing scientific knowledge regardless of
when it will be used
• It is done purely out of curiosity
• It develops many alternative solutions thus
enabling us to choose the best
 2. Applied research
• Also known as empirical research
• It is conducted to test theories and evaluating
its usefulness in problem solving
• It also develops new knowledge but its
primary intention is knowledge that can be
applied immediately
 3. Action research
• It applied in solving a specific problem at local
setting
• Its purpose is to solve practical problems
through application of scientific methods
• Its not concerned in generalization of findings
to other areas
 4. Evaluative research
• A process of collecting data with the intention
of checking whether the desired goal was
achieved
• It is made for assessing the effectiveness of
social, or economical or health programmes
implemented
 2. Classification according to methods of
analysis
• Can be classified as:
– Descriptive research
– Causal-comparative research
– Correlation methods
 [Link] research
• This is collection of data in order to test
hypothesis
• or to answer questions concerning the current
status of the subjects in the study
• It describes things the way they are
 [Link]-comparative research
• It is used to explore relationship between
variables
• Determine reasons or causes for the current
status of phenomenon under study
• It is similar to experimental only that in this
the researcher is not able to manipulate one
or more variables
 [Link] methods
• This describes quantitatively the degree in which
two variables are related and is expressed in terms
of correlation coefficient (r)
• It is expressed between -1 to 1
• A positive (r) means that as one variable increases
the other one increases
• The purpose is to:
– Explore relationship between variable
– Predict a subject score on one variable given the score in
the other
 3. Classification by type of
research
• Can be classified as :
– Survey research
– Historical research
– Observational research
– Experimental research
 [Link] research
• Attempt to collect data from a population in
order to determine the current status of the
population in regard to one or more variables
• Obtains information that describes
phenomenon by asking individuals abt their
perception, attitude, behaviour, values
• e.g market researchers use surveys to evaluate
product acceptance
 [Link] research
• This is research by review and analyzing past
experiences
• Aims at arriving at conclusion concerning
causes , effects or trends of past experience
that may help explain present events and
anticipate future events
• examples of historical sources; personal
letters, life histories, wills, work of art,
museum
 3. Observational research
• In this research the researcher observes
instead of asking questions
• e.g instead of asking a teacher how they
handle discipline in class ;one can observe the
teacher and get more information
• This research collects objective data
• ASSIGNMENT
– Read and make notes on different types of
observational study (mugenda, O and Mugenda,
A. (2003) research methods, Acts press: Nairobi )
 [Link] research
• It involves manipulation of independent variables
to determine their effect on dependent variable
• Commonly used in clinical settings because of it’s
accuracy and reliability.
• The three major characteristics:
– Control: basic element of experimentation. Experiment
must be organised so that the extraneous factors are
prevented from operating and confusing the outcome.
Acquired through manipulation and randomization
 Ctied
– manipulation: process by which the researcher
manages the independent variable in order to
study the effect on dependent variable.
– randomization: every subject has an equal chance
of being assigned to any group.
– e.g researcher interested in finding out effects of
using different type of fertilizer on maize yield per
acre
– independent variable -type of fertilizer
– dependent variable-maize yield
 DEFINITION OF BASIC TERMS
Population-An entire group of individuals ,
events or objects having common observable
characteristics
– Example: All grade six pupils in meru
– All patients suffering from diabetes
in meru
 Parameter
– Measurable attribute of a population
– Example: Average age of the population
 Representativeness
– The degree to which characteristics of the sample
 CONT’N
 Sample
– A subgroup that has been selected, by using one of
several methods, from the population
Sampling – process of selecting a number of
individuals for a study in such a way that the
individuals selected represent the large group.
 Estimation
– Using sample-based data to infer conclusions about
the population
Grey literature-anything written but is not published
 CONT’N
 Variable – a measurable xtic that assumes
different values among the subject. E.g, age,
height, weight……..etc.
Types include: dependent, independent, control,
extraneous
Independent variable: a variable that the
researcher manipulates in order to determine its
effect or influence on another variable. Also
referred to as the cause, stimulus, experimental
variable or the treatment.
 CONT’N
• Dependent variable: attempts to indicate
the total influence arising from the effects of the
independent variable. Also referred to as the
effect, response, criterion measure, behavior or
outcome that the researcher wishes to study,
predict or explain.
• extraneous variables: variables that affect
the outcome of the research either bcoz the
researcher is not aware of their existence or if
the researcher is aware, she or he does not
control for them.
 CONT’N
 demographic variables-They are
variables that cannot be manipulated or
influenced by the researcher, but may have an
effect on the dependent variable for example,
age, sex religious beliefs or educational level,
working experience.
 CONT’N
 Validity: an instrument of measurement
accurately measures what it is supposed to
measure. The instrument truly reflects the
concept it is supposed to measure..
 Reliability: the accuracy or inaccuracy rate in a
measurement device.
The extent to which an instrument yields the same
results on repeated measures.
It is concerned with consistency, accuracy,
precision, stability, equivalence, and
homogeneity.
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
• Has 4 main phases:
– The conceptual phase, also called the thinking or
planning phase.
– The empirical phase, also called the doing phase.
– The interpretive phase, or the phase where the
researcher looks at the meaning of it all.
– The communication phase or the phase of writing
and disseminating the research report.
Steps in research process
 Identification of research problem/topic
• A research problem can be defined as:
– An intellectual stimulus calling for a response in the
form of scientific enquiry or the subject matter of
inquiry in a research.
– An issue, concern or controversy that puzzles the
researcher due to its effect or consistence despite
available measures to prevent its occurrence
– A set of conditions needing discussion, a solution
and/or information.
– The issue or concern that is investigated in a research
process. These areas of concern can be in terms of
conditions to be improved, difficulties to be eliminated
or questions seeking answers.
 Ctied
• A good research topic/problem in nursing should:
– Improve nursing services by contributing to more
knowledge and better skills.
– Enhance existing knowledge by filling in gaps that exist
– Encourage more research on already existing nursing
theories.
– Address current concerns or priority areas in nursing.
– Pay more attention to ethical issues
 Ctied
• Your topic should be within reasonable scope
• The following will influence the scope
– Time available
– Money available
– Availability of equipments
– Availability of subjects
 Sources of Research problems
• There are several ways of indentifying a research
problem:
– Existing theories: generalized and hypothesized
principles can be tested.
– Existing literature: textbooks and approved articles
– Discussions with experts: in class or in seminars,
source of current problem.
– Previous research studies: from the field of interest,
areas of further research.
– Replication: to find out whether findings hold over
time and across regions.
– The media: from frequent reports
– Personal experiences
 Ctied
• When stating a problem one should ensure that it:
– Clarifies what is to be determined or investigated
– Is clear and focused
– Shows the urgency, importance and need for the
research.
– Should show the scope of the research
– Should be brief but precise; this may range from half a
paragraph to one
– must also capture the purpose of the research.
A RESEARCH ON KNOWLEDGE ON HEPATITIS B AND THE
UPTAKE OF HEPATITIS B VACCINE AMONG NURSES IN
CONSOLATA HOSPITAL NKUBU.
• Nurses are always exposed to the risks of acquiring HBV due
to contact with body fluids from patients. It is also a well-
established fact that an unvaccinated individual stands the
risk of 6%-30% to acquire the infection following an exposure
with infected body secretions. Fortunately HBV is highly
preventable through vaccination, the vaccine prevent HBV
infection in 98% of people who produce sufficient antibody
responses. Despite the safe, effective and highly acceptable
HBV vaccine that has been around since 1882, its use among
health care workers in the developing world is low. In a study
in Thika, Kiambu County only 12.8% of health care workers
had received vaccination signifying a low vaccine uptake
among health care workers in Kenya. (Suckling et al, 2006).
 Research purpose
• It is the researcher’s intended task of availing a
solution (or solutions) to the problem under study.
• The purpose statement broadly highlights the focus
of your study in terms of the variables you will
address, the research task and subjects of your
study.
• The research task as captured in the purpose
statement is presented using verbs such as
determine, examine, assess, evaluate, analyze, find
out and so on.
 Research objectives
• Specific issues within the scope of the stated
purpose that the researcher wants to focus
upon and examine in the study.
• e.g To determine the level of knowledge of
hepatitis B virus among staff at CHN
• To find out the uptake of hepatitis B virus
vaccine among staff at CHN
 Research objectives help to:

– Bridge the gap between the

research purpose and the study design.
– Guide on planning for data collection and
analysis.
– Summarize what is to be achieved by the
study.
– Build a close link with the statement of the
problem.
– Keep the researcher within the scope of
study by defining the area of focus.
 Characteristics
• S - Specific
• M - Measurable
• A - Achievable
• R - Realistic
• T - Time bound
 Research questions
• Can be derived from:
– Your working experience (professional experience).
– Literature search you are undertaking.
– Theoretical frameworks on nursing.
• They must be:
– F - Feasible, allowing one to appreciate the practical
limitations.
– I - Interesting, sustaining the research process.
– N - Novel, able to provide new findings
– E - Ethical.
– R - Relevant
 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
• Hypotheses is defined and described variously
as follows:
– Technically, the word ‘hypothesis’ is a Greek word
that means ‘an assumption subject to verification’.
– It is a researcher’s tentative prediction of the
results of research findings, and is most commonly
stated in quantitative research.
– A guess or an assumption because it may state a
true or an untrue relationship between variables in
a research.
 Definition Cont’d
– It is a statement that describes an unknown
but tentatively logical outcome of the
current state of affairs or phenomenon.
– It is an educated guess about possible
differences, relationships or causes of a
research problem
– It is an anticipated outcome or solution of a
research problem which is only verified
after data has been collected and analyzed.
 Importance of hypotheses
• They specify expected relationships between
variables being studied
• They help in strengthening and concretizing
the research problem
• They give direction to the research process
because they form the basis upon which data
is collected and analyzed.
 CONT’N
• They highlight the variables that are examined
or investigated in a research.
• They form the basis upon which conclusions
and recommendations of a study are made;
that is, researchers usually base the
conclusions of their studies on the results
arising from testing of hypotheses.
• They enable researchers to check the validity
of theories
 Characteristics of Hypotheses
• Hypothesis must be clear with regard to
highlighting the variables under study.
• Hypothesis specifies or points out expected
relationships between or among variables in
terms of direction (positive or negative)
• Hypotheses must be testable using available
methods.
 CONT’D
• They are value-free, that is, they are free of
researcher’s own values, biases and subjective
preferences
• Hypotheses must tally or be in harmony with
the stated purpose and objectives of the
study.
• They must be stated in measurable terms.
• They are stated in clear and precise wording.
 Ctied
• They must derived from relevant theory,
literature, results of previous studies or
researcher’s professional experience, and
consistent with the existing body of
knowledge.
• They must be consistent with common sense
or generally accepted truths.
 CONT’D
• An effective hypothesis is simple and concise.
• A good hypothesis must be that which can be
tested within an acceptable time frame or in
duration of time that is within the
reach/convenience of the researcher but not
within a very long time due to effects of
attrition of the subjects and other factors that
may be affected by time.
 Types of hypotheses
• Null hypothesis H0: states no real relationship
or difference exists between variables
• Alternative hypothesis H1: also referred to as
research hypothesis. It states that there is a
difference or correlation between the
variables.
 CONT’N
– Alternative non-directional hypotheses:
States there is a relationship or differences
but the researcher does not know the
nature of such a difference or relationship.
– Alternative directional hypothesis: specifies
the nature of the relationship or difference
between the variables.
 Rationale or Justification of the Research
Problem
• Highlights reasons for conducting the research
and the importance of carrying it out.
• Address some questions:
– What gaps in knowledge will the study address?
– Why is the study important?
– What will the study contribute to the society?
 Ctied
• significance of the study addresses questions like:
– How will the results be used?
– Who will benefit from the results?
– Is the study worth it?
• The rationale of the study should describe the
utility and importance of the problem in
health care services in general and the nursing
profession in particular.
 Limitations and assumptions
• Limitations: aspect of the study that may
negatively affect the results or generalizability
of the results but the researcher has no
control over.
• Could be due to sample size, length of the
study, or data collection procedures
• Assumptions: any important fact presumed
to be true but not actually verified
 LITERATURE REVIEW
• Definitions:,
– Entails the systematic identification, location and
analysis of documents containing information
related to the research problem being
investigated. (Mugenda and Mugenda, 1999)
– Burns and Grove (1999:), defines it as a summary
of theoretical and empirical sources to generate a
picture of what is known and not known about a
particular problem
 Purpose of literature review
• Determine what has been done already as
regards the research problem under
investigation.
• Identify strategies, procedures and measuring
instruments that have been found useful in
the investigation of the research problem.
 Ctied
• Help make the researcher familiar with
previous studies and thus facilitate the
interpretation of the study.
• Help the researcher to narrow the research
topic.
• Help determine new approaches and
stimulate new ideas.
 Sources of literature
• Primary
• This is the work written by the person who is actually
involved in, or is responsible for, the generation of
the idea published.
– It can also be information from a person who actually
observed or witnessed the occurrence under investigation
– The person who conducts empirical research and
publishes it in a journal is usually regarded as the primary
source of information.
– Primary sources give first hand information.
 Ctied
• Secondary
– Involves summaries or quoted content from a
primary source.
– It is usually information given by someone who
was not a direct observer or participant of the
events described.
 Examples of sources
• Scholarly journals
• Books
• Thesis and dissertations
• Government documents
• Papers presented at a conference
• Refferences quoted in a book
• Abstracts
• Periodicals
• Internet
• computer search
 Steps
• Be very familiar with the library.
• Make a list of key words to guide your
literature search.
• With key words set, source for the literature.
• Summarize the references on cards for easy
organization of the literature.
• Analyze, organize and report the literature in
an orderly manner.
 Ctied
• Make an outline of main topics or themes.
• Analyze each reference in terms of the outline
made and establish where it will be most
relevant.
• Do not ignore any information.
• General to more specific
 Referencing
• All references cited in the text must appear in
the reference list. This will enable reader to
locate your sources
• the referencing style is APA style- American
Psychological Association
• HOW TO CITE JOURNAL ARTICLE
Author surname, initial (s). (year). Article
[Link] title, Volume number, pages
 cont; read more ; mugenda
mugenda page 39
• journal title shoud be in italic
• e.g Moon, M. (1990) . Consumer issues and the
elderly. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 24,235-244
• HOW TO CITE A BOOK
• Author surname, initial (s). (year). Title(ed). Publisher
location: Publisher
• title should be italic
• e.g Haris,H.I. (1970).The Amazon rainforest(2nd ed).
San Jose,Whitney Co.
 RESEARCH DESIGNS
• The research design is the plan, structure, and
strategy of investigations of answering the
research questions the researcher selects to carry
out the study
• Four common types:
– Experimental Design: Experimental and Quasi-
experimental.
– Survey Design: Comparative and Correlation.
– Descriptive Design: Descriptive and Explorative.
– Case Study Design.
 Elements of a research design
• They include:
– Description of subjects (who).
– Observation of variables (what).
– Measures of time (when).
– Selection of setting (where).
– Role of the investigator
 Ctied
• Subjects-Individuals who take part in the
study, who will be the recipients of the
experiment or who will be observed in a
descriptive survey.
• Variables-Are the focus of the study and
reflect the aspect being studied. The design
could be univariate (address one variable) or
multivariate (multiple
variables).
 Ctied
• Time-Considers the frequency (how often) and
the order (when) in which observations are
made
• Setting-May be the natural setting or lab
setting depending upon the topic and
researcher’s choice.
 Ctied
• Investigator’s role- some studies the
investigator remains an obstructive,
attempting not to influence the variables
being studied while in others s/he imposes
control on many variables, actively
manipulates some of the variables being
studied
Factors influencing choice of a study design

• Available information (state of knowledge) about

the problem
• The nature of the problem and its environment.
• The availability of resources for the study.
• The skills and creativity of the researchers.
• Availability of the subjects
• Cost
• Control
• Ethical consideration
 Experimental Research Design
• An experiment; a scientific investigation in
which observations are made and data are
collected according to a set of well defined
criteria.
• commonly used in clinical settings because of
its accuracy and reliability.
• Subdivided into true experimental and quasi-
experimental
 Ctied
• concerned with testing hypotheses and establishing
causality.
• tests the hypothesis of relationships, that is,
attempts to make predictions of future outcomes
based on a causal model implementing strategies to
control the predicted outcome.
• the researcher controls or manipulates the action of
the independent or causal variable(s) and observes
and measures the action or outcome on the
dependant variable
 Ctied
• Characteristics:
– Manipulation
– Control
– Randomizing
Types
1. True experiment-most accurate. participants are
randomly assigned to groups, and control group is
used
2. Quasi experiment-often used when rndom
assigmentis not possible , unethical or impractical
 Ctied
• Advantages
– Most powerful design for testing the hypothesis of
cause-effect relationships between variables.
– It is practical, feasible and can be generalised to
some extent. introduces some control over certain
extraneous variables.
 Ctied
• Disadvantages
– In most real situations, it is difficult to conduct a
true experimental design, since some of the
variables cannot be manipulated or controlled.
– At times it becomes quite difficult to get
randomised research subjects or even a control
group.
– very expensive, both in terms of time and money.
 Survey Research Design
• Systematic gathering of information.
• Concerned with gathering information from a sample
of population.
• The purpose of the study is usually to identify general
trends or patterns in the collected data
• Designed to obtain information from the population
regarding the prevalence, distribution, and
interrelations of variables within those populations
• Survey studies primarily yield quantitative data.
• They mainly investigate what people do.
 Ctied
• Data collection in survey design
– Questionnaires, which are mainly self-administered.
– Telephone interviews,.
– Personal interviews, also known as face-to-face
interviews.
• Advantages.
– It is flexible and broad in scope
– It can be applied to many people
– It can focus on wide range of topics
 Ctied
• Disadvantages.
– Information generated is often superficial as the
survey rarely probes deeply.
– Better suited for extensive rather than intensive
analysis of a situation.
– researcher designs the phenomenon and study
but does not manipulate any variables nor do they
make any efforts to determine the relationships
between variables.
 Ctied
• Types
– comparative descriptive survey is designed to be a
comparison between two or more groups to find
out how they differ on some variables.
– correlation survey, the researcher attempts to
determine and describe what relationship exists
between variables.
 Descriptive Research Design
• The systematic collection and presentation of
data to give clear picture of a particular
situation.
• Aims to discover and describe new facts about
a situation, people, activities, or events.
• Its main purposes include observing,
describing, documenting and classifying all
aspects of a situation as it naturally occurs.
 Ctied
• Designed to gain more information about
characteristics within a particular field of study
as it naturally happens.
• May be used for developing a theory,
identifying problems within the current
practice, justifying current practices or making
judgments determining what others in similar
situations are doing.
 Ctied
• No manipulation of variables is involved as
opposed to experimental design.
• No dependent or independent variables are
used within a descriptive study design because
no attempt is made to establish causality.
 cont
• types
1. cross-sectional- collects data at one point in
time
2. longitudinal-repeatedly collect data from
same group of individuals over a period of
time
 Ctied
• Advantages.
– Lower costs
– Relatively easy to implement
– Ability to yield results in a fairly short period
– Results are relatively straightforward to analyse
and communicate to an audience.
• Disadvantages.
– Does not answer questions of causal-effect
relationship nature
– Expensive when complex data collection
techniques are used
– May not consider variables in depth
– Generalizability of the findings may not be
achieved
 Case Study Research Design
• An in depth study of one individual, a group of
individuals or an institution
• Is a detailed account of a particular experience event
or situation. It is meant to provide a description of
people’s thoughts, feelings
and perceptions.
• Does not aim at providing a causal relationship,
neither does it attempt to test a hypothesis.
• Describe the characteristics of one or a limited
number of cases extensively
 Ctied
• Limitations.
– They require plenty of time.
– They are costly.
– Have high possibility of subject drop out.
– Data analysis also calls for skills and experience,
particularly if the study is carried over a long
period of time
 Ctied
• Used when:
– There is a need to demonstrate the effectiveness
of a specific therapeutic technique.
– Generating and testing hypotheses.
– There is need to generate knowledge on a
particular issue or situation that has not been
adequately researched on.
 SAMPLING
• Process of selecting a number of individuals
for a study in such a way that the individuals
selected represent the large group
• pertains to the identification of the study
subjects from the general population a
researcher is interested in. It is the process of
selecting representative units of a population
for study in research.
 Ctied
• The process of selecting a subset of a
population in order to obtain information
regarding a phenomenon in a way it
represents the entire population
• The type of sampling method a researcher
uses will depend mainly on the type of
research one intends to undertake, the
methodology to be applied and the time
available for the tasks
 Ctied
• Population:
– the entire group of persons or set of objects and
events the researcher wants to study.
– also referred to as all the possible entities or
individuals that have the characteristic(s) of interest
to the study.
– Total category of subjects that meets the criteria for
study established by the researcher.
– Posses all the characteristics the researcher is
interested in.
– The greater the diversity and differences that exist in
the population, the larger the researcher’s sample
size should be.
 Ctied
• Its of two types:
– The target population: population that the
researcher wishes to study . The population
about which the researcher wishes to make a
generalization.
– The accessible population refers to the aggregate
cases which conform to the designated criteria
and to which accessible the researcher as a pool
for the study.
 C’tied
• Sample:
– A group of people, or records or a number of observations from
a larger population.
– It is a representative group of individuals selected form a
population.
• Sampling frame:
– comprehensive list of all the sampling elements in the target
population.
• Representative sample:
– sample resembles the population from which it is drawn in all
aspects. It should possess all the variables a researcher is
interested in
 Ctied
• Sampling bias:
– Occurs when the researcher has not carefully
selected the samples that are expected to
represent the general target population.
– It could arise from the data collection process, E.g,
what time of the day the data was collected,
languages of communication or how the data was
collected.
 Ctied
• Sampling error :
– The difference between population parameters
(for example, the average age of the population)
and the sample statistics (for example, the average
age of the sample group).
– It is the degree of deviation of the sample from
the population from which it was drawn
 Ctied
• Advantages of sampling:
– Economy in expenditure.
– Economy in time.
– Greater degree of accuracy.
– Intensive and exhaustive data.
– Better rapport.
• Disadvantages of sampling
– Increased chances of bias.
– Difficulty in getting representative supply.
– Need for specialized knowledge.
– Impossibility of sampling.
Qualities of an effective population sample.

• Diversity- the greater the diversity and differences

that exist in the population sample the higher the
applicability of the research findings to the whole
population.
• Representative: identify and select respondents that
fulfill the questions the researcher is addressing
• Accessibility: an effective population sample is one
that is accessible to the researcher.
• Knowledge: should have an idea of the topic being
investigated.
 The sampling process
• Define the population – from which the researcher
will obtain the information. Defined in terms of
elements, units of existence and time.
• Specify sampling frame . The means of representing
the elements of the population, eg class list.
• Specify sampling units for sampling in selection.
Involves the task of determining that data to be
collected on the sample so defined.
 Ctied
• Specify sampling method of measurements –
method by which the units are to be selected.
• Determine the sample size- number of
elements of the population to be sampled.
• Specify sampling plan- the operational
procedures for selection of the sampling units.
• Select the sample
 How to determine sample size
• Use the formulae

• n- desired sample size

• Z- standard normal deviation
• p –proportion in the target population
• q- 1-p
• d-level of statistical significance set
 CONT’D
• If there is no estimate available of the
proportion in the target population assumed
to have the characteristics of interest, 50%
should be used
 Ctied
• If population is less than 10,000

• N- estimate of the population

• nf-the final sample
 EXAMPLE
•
 Sampling Techniques
• There are two basic sampling techniques:
– Probability or random sampling
– Non probability sampling
 Probability Sampling
• Probability sampling allows for a much more a
representative sample of the population and
enables the estimation of sampling error.
• It also enables the calculation of differential
statistics and allows the study to be
generalized to other areas.
 Ctied
• Probability sampling involves a random
selection procedure to ensure that each unit
of the sample is chosen on the basis of
chance.
• All units of the study population have an
equal or at least a known chance of being
included in the sample from list provided.
• More likely to result in a representative
sample.
 Ctied
• Probability sampling methods include;
– Simple Random Sampling
– Systematic or Interval Sampling
– Stratified Random Sampling
– Cluster Sampling
 Simple Random Sampling
• commonest and the simplest methods of
sampling.
• each unit (subject) has equal chance to be
selected.
• involves one stage selection.
 ways of selecting the subjects
• Identify the specific target population.
• Formulate an appropriate sampling frame.
• Determine the sample size for the study.
• Adapt a consecutive identification number
for each unit in the sampling frame.
• Select the desired subjects using a
randomized technique.
 Ctied
• Selecting a random sample could be done
through:
– the lottery method.
– use of random tables.
– tossing a coin to help you decide where and how
to start.
– ‘yes’ n ‘no’ papers
 Advantages
• Requires minimum knowledge about the
population in advance which is needed in the
case of purposive sampling.
• The method is free from classification errors.
• Sampling errors can be easily computed and
the accuracy of the estimate easily assessed
 Disadvantages
• Does not make use of the knowledge about the
population which the researcher may have.
• Sample size required to ensure statistical
reliability is usually large.
• Some samples may be over or under represented.
• Non response error is high – some of the
members selected may have moved to a new
place.
 Systematic random sampling
• Is the selection of every nth element from a sampling
frame, where n, the sampling interval, is calculated as:
• n = number in population/number in sample
• The list of all the members in the sampling frame
must be randomized.
• So you need to get a starting point, e.g if your nth
element is 6, write numbers one upto 6, put them in a
ballot then pick one. Lets say you pick 3, that is your
starting point and the next person will be 6 numbers
down the line
 Ctied
• Advantages:
– Simple to follow.
– Distributes the sample more evenly over the entire population.
– Bias is minimized.
– Large populations can be analysed
• Disadvantages:
– The response may be low since the respondents’ availability is
unpredictable.
– The selection of the first sample may result in a bias in the
entire sample.
– The list used may not be in systematic order.
 Stratified random sampling
• When sub-populations vary considerably,
sample each subpopulation (stratum)
independently.
• Stratification is the process of grouping
members of the population into relatively
homogeneous subgroups, for example, by
education level, socioeconomic structure,
gender…………….
 Ctied
• Every element in the population must be
assigned to only one stratum.
• No population element can be excluded.
• Random sampling is then applied within each
stratum.
• E.g
• Get a % of each grp then multiply by the
sample size
 Ctied
• Advantages:
– Superior than simple random sampling since it
ensures representation of all groups.
– Sample can be kept small in size without
loosing its accuracy.
– Characterstics of each stratum can be
estimated and hence comparison can be
made.
 Ctied
• Disadvantages
– Proportionate stratification requires accurate
information on proportion of population in
each stratum.
– It is very costly to prepare stratified lists of all
members.
– There is always a possibility of faulty
classification and hence increase in variability.
 Cluster sampling
• Used when 'natural' groupings are evident in
the population.
• The total population is divided into these
groups (or clusters) eg counties, regions,
provinces, and a sample of the groups is
selected.
• The required information is then collected
from the elements within each selected group
 Ctied
• Elements within a cluster should ideally be as
homogeneous as possible.
• Each cluster should be a small scale version of
the total population.
• A random sampling technique is then used on
any relevant clusters to choose which clusters
to include in the study.
 Non probability methods
• Are those in which the sample elements are
arbitrarily selected by the researcher because in his
judgment the elements thus chosen will
represent the population.
• Elements are chosen on nonrandom method.
• Include:
– Purposive sampling.
– Quota sampling.
– Convenience sampling.
– Snow ball sampling
Purposive or Judgmental Sampling
• The researcher selects a particular group or
groups based on certain criteria i.e selection
by choice not design.
• Commonly used in qualitative studies.
 Ctied
• Used when;
– Studying past events and only a fraction of
relevant materials is available or accessible.
– Studying sensitive issues eg abortion, prostitution
or crime.
– If population contains few relevant cases.
– If the population is unknown or not readily
identifiable.
 Ctied
• Advantages
– It gives the researcher a free hand to respond
according to their judgment.
– Very simple to draw.
– Less costly and involves less field work.
– It is more representative of typical conditions than
the random sample if the size of the sample is
small.
 Ctied
• Disadvantages:
– sampling biases, the possibility of
unrepresentative samples and lack of
generalizations of the study findings.
– Not always reliable.
– It requires from the researcher considerable
knowledge about the population .
 Quota Sampling
• The population is first segmented into
mutually exclusive sub-groups, just as in
stratified sampling.
• Then judgment is used to select the subjects
or units from each segment based on a
specified proportion
 Ctied
• Advantages.
– It is less costly in time and money.
– Is administratively easy.
– It is most suited when fieldwork has to be done quickly.
• Disadvantages.
– It is not possible to estimate sampling errors since there
is no randomization.
– It may not provide representative sample of the
respondents.
– The investigator may select only those known to him.
 Convenience or Accidental Sampling
• The study units that happen to be available at
the time of data collection are selected and
used as a sample
• Allows the utilization of any available target
population.
• Researcher is unable to control bias at all.
 Snow Ball Sampling
• Technique for developing a research sample
where existing study subjects recruit future
subjects from among their acquaintances.
• Initial subjects with the desired characteristics
are identified using purposeful sampling.
• Sample members are not selected from a
sampling frame, therefore, snowball samples
are subject to numerous biases.
 Ethics in research
Importance
• To ensure high quality research: Low quality
research is unethical in that it exposes the
participants to the risks or costs of research
without the chance of future benefit
• To protect the rights of the research subjects
from research risks and abuse
• To ensure fair distribution of potential benefits
of the study to the study subjects
 Ctied
• Obligations to feedback and publication
• Conflict of interests: Often this takes the form
of sponsorship by a company that has an
interest in a particular outcome of the study
 Ethical principles in research
• The Principle of Justice-The concept of justice
in research is interpreted to mean a fair
distribution of the benefits of research
• The Principle of Beneficence- that the actions
of researchers are directed at improving the
well-being of study participants
 Ctied
• Respect for autonomy- respect for ones
capacity of self-determination or decision and
those with diminished or impaired autonomy
or those in dependent or vulnerable positions
should be protected against harm or abuse.
 Ctied
• Voluntary participation- that all subjects
should be recruited into the study upon their
informed consent.
• Confidentiality- Participants usually expect the
information from them to remain confidential
 Ctied
• Risk of Harm- participants should not be put
in a situation where they might be at risk of
harm as a result of their participation
CONDUCTING A PRE-TEST OR PILOT STUDY

• Pilot study :a small version of a proposed

study conducted to refine the methodology.
• It is developed and conducted in a manner
similar to the proposed study, using similar
research respondents and the same setting.
• A pre-test usually refers to a small scale trial of
a particular research component.
 Ctied
• The primary objective of the pilot study is to
test as many elements of the research
proposal as possible.
• Pretesting is the process of measuring the
effectiveness of the instruments used to
gather data.
 Purposes of a pre-test or pilot study

• To determine whether the proposed

study is feasible.
• Identify any problems with the research
design.
• To ensure that items in the data
collection instrument are stated clearly
and have the same meaning to all
research respondents.
 Ctied
• To determine the effectiveness of the
sampling technique used.
• Give the researcher the real experience
in the field.
• Determine the human and financial
resources requirement for the study.
 Ctied
• Determine the effectiveness of the training
given to research assistants where necessary
• Evaluate the procedure for data processing
and analysis.
• To assess the time taken to administer the
research instrument
• Determine whether the sample is
representative of the population
 Advantages of pilot study.
• It tells about the completeness, accuracy,
and convenience of the sampling frame
from which it is proposed to select the
sample.
• It shows how effective the training has
been in ridding the interviewers of their
prejudices and in identifying the
deficiencies of training.
 Ctied
• It allays interviewers’ fears about
sensitive questions and builds their self
confidence.
• It tests the efficiency of the survey
organizations in the field.
• It helps in bringing out the inadequacies
of the draft questionnaire .
 Ctied
• It helps in identifying the need for
different kinds of equipment and vehicles
which are necessary during projects.
• It provides data for making estimates of
time and cost for completing various
phases of the project and shows way to
effect savings
 DATA COLLECTION
• The precise, systematic gathering of
information relevant to the research purpose
or the specific objectives, questions or
hypotheses of a study
 Ctied
• In data collection method, the approach will
depend on:
– The type of study you are undertaking.
– The study objectives
– The design
– The available resources for the study in the form
of money, time
– The technical skills of the research team.
 Data Collection Plan
• Can be developed by:
– List the tasks that have to be carried out
and the people responsible for those tasks.
– Make a rough estimate of the time needed
for different parts of the study.
– Identify the most appropriate period in
which to carry out the research.
– Schedule the different activities that have to
be carried out each week in a work plan
 Ctied
• The main stages in the data collection process:
– Permission to Proceed :Consent must be obtained
from the relevant authorities, individuals, and the
community in which the project is to be carried
out.
– Data Collection: identifying who will collect what,
when and with what resources and quality
control.
– Data Handling : a clear procedure should be
developed for handling and storing data,
 Data collection
• Type of data to be collected and the demands of the
project will determine the actual period of data
collection.
• The following should be considered:
– The availability of research team members and research
assistants.
– The appropriate season(s) to conduct the fieldwork (if the
problem is season related or if data collection will be difficult
in certain periods).
– The accessibility and availability of the sample population.
– Public holidays and vacation periods.
 Ctied
• To ensure data quality
– Prepare a fieldwork manual for the research team
as a whole. Should include:
• Guidelines on sampling procedures and what to do if
respondents are not available or refuse to cooperate.
• A clear explanation of the purpose and procedures of
the study.
• Instruction sheets on how to ask certain questions and
how to record the answers
 Ctied
– Ensure that you select your research assistants, if
required, with care: same educational level, familiar
with the topic and the local conditions, but are not
the subject of study themselves and are not biased
concerning the topic.
– Train research assistants carefully in all topics covered
in the fieldwork manual as well as in interview
techniques.
– You should pre-test research instruments and
research procedures with the whole research team.
– Arrange for ongoing supervision of research assistants
 Methods of data collection.
Questionnaires
Interviews
 [Link].
• Commonly used to obtain information
about the population.
• Each item in it address a specific
objective, research question or
hypothesis of the study.
 Ctied
• Disadvantages:
– May confuse respondents to the nature of
information required.
– May discourage respondents.
– May leave out important information required in
the study.
 Ctied
• Question construction involves four major areas.
– Question relevance and content
– Question wording
– Types of questions
– Question order or sequence
• Avoid the following types of questions:
– Leading questions
– 'Loaded' questions
– Ambiguous questions
– Double-barreled questions
– Long questions
– Double negative questions.
 Ctied
• Has 2 types of questions
• Structured or closed -ended questions- Are
accompanied by a list of all possible alternatives from
which the respondents select the answers.
– Advantages.
• Easier to analyse.
• Easier to administer.
• Economical- time and money.
– Disadvantages.
• Difficult to construct.
• Responses are limited.
 Ctied
• Unstructured or open-ended questions- Gives
the respondent freedom of response.
– Advantages.
• Permit greater depth of response.
• Simpler to formulate.
• Respondents may give an insight to his feelings,
background, hidden motivation, interests and
decisions
 Ctied
– Disadvantages.
• There is tendency to provide information which
does not answer a stipulated research question
or objective.
• Responses given may be difficult to categorize
hence difficult to analyse.
• Time consuming.
 Ctied
• Contingency questions.
– Follow-up questions for a relevant subgroup in
order to gather more information.
– They are subsequent questions asked after an
initial question.
– Also referred to as filter questions
 2. Interviews
• Oral administration of a questionnaire or an
interview schedule.
• They are face- to- face encounters
• Advantages
– Provide in-depth data.
– Guard against confusing the questions.
– More flexible.
– Sensitive to personal information.
– Can provide more information through probing
 Ctied
• Disadvantages
– More expensive.
– Requires high level of skill.
– Interviewers need to be trained to avoid biasness.
– Time consuming hence smaller samples involved.
– Hawthorne effect
 ctied
• Others:
– Observation forms, schedules or checklists.
– Focused group discussions
 Measurements in research
a) Nominal (or categorical) scale: one can do no
more than say that the object measured belongs
to this or that particular category e.g sex, race,
marital status.
b) Ordinal Scale: These are measurements where it
is possible to say that one is bigger than another,
and so to rank them with respect to each other,
but it is impossible to assess the size of the
differences. Intervals between groups are not
necessarily equal
 ctied
(c) Interval Scale: These are scales where actual
measurements are used, ranked in order and
the differences between the units are equal.
E.g temp, test scores

(d)Ratio scale: have an absolute or true zero in

their measurement.
• With this scale, we are able to assess the size of
the differences between measurements.
Common effects related to research process

• The hawthorne effect- performance increases when

respondents are aware that they are in an experiment
• The placebo effect- the psychological effect of a
treatment.
• John Henry effect- a group works harder when they
feel disadvantaged
• The pygmalion effect- respondents perform according
to the expectation of the researcher
• Halo effect- the researcher’s results are affected by the
initial impression
 Data Handling
• Guidelines:
– Check that the data gathered is complete and
accurate.
– At some stage questionnaires will have to be
numbered. Decide if this should be done at the
time of the interview or when the questionnaires
are stored.
 Ctied
• Identify the person responsible for storing
data and the place where it will be stored.
• Decide how data should be stored. Record
forms should be kept in the sequence in which
they have been numbered.
 Ctied
• In order to ensure that your data collection
process is ethical, you should consider:
– How have you planned to obtain informed consent
from your informants?
– Are there any categories of informants that need
special consideration because of their vulnerable
status, for example, children, sick persons, and
mentally disabled individuals?
 Ctied
– Are certain parts of the research focused on
sensitive issues?
– How will you handle problems that may arise?
– Do certain parts of your research require extra
attention to assure confidentiality?
– How will you handle this issue?
– Research assistants or interviewers must be
thoroughly familiar with the research objectives
and the methodology.
 Data Entry
• When entering your data, consider:
– Decide on a format, that is, the way you will
organize the data in a file.
– Design a code, that is, the rules by which the
respondents’ answers will be assigned values that
can be processed by the computer
 Ctied
– Do the actual coding - turn the responses into the
standard categories you developed in your coding
system.
– Data entry - keying the data into the computer so
that you can process it.
– Data cleaning - final check you make on the data
file for accuracy, completeness, and consistency
prior to the onset of analysis.
 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION
• Methods of Data Presentation:
– Charts
– Graphs
– Frequency distribution tables
– Histograms
– Narrative method
 Qualitative Data Presentation and
Analysis
• Describe the sample population by providing a
description of the:
– Respondents, for instance, key informants
or focus group members. Age, sex,
occupation, educational background and so
on.
• Order, reduce and/or code the data (data
processing).
 Ctied
• Display the summaries of data for
interpretation.
• Raw conclusions
• Develop strategies for testing or
confirming the findings to prove their
validity.
• Use the narrative approach in presenting
the data.
 Quantitative data presentation and analysis

• The process of organizing, summarizing and

visualizing quantitative data is referred to as
‘descriptive statistics’
• Purpose is to help the researcher to visualize
and identify the patterns that may emerge
from the data collected and assist in making
meaningful conclusions.
 Ctied
• The main types of descriptive statistics
– Mode
– Median
– Mean
• Referred to as measures of central
tendency.
 Graphic representation of frequency
distribution
• Bar charts-Used when the data being presented is
discrete or categorical or when the scale is nominal.
• Histograms- used to represent continuous
variables. There are no spaces between the bars
• Frequency polygons- are drawn based on the
frequencies of the observations along the vertical
axis against the group or class midpoints.
• Pie charts- Are relatively easy to interpret: each
portion represents a variable
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL
• Is a detailed statement of what you intend to
do, why you want to do it and how you will go
about it.
• Outlines the what, why and how of your study
 Ctied
A research proposal helps the researcher:
• To sharpen their thoughts and the research
methodology.
• To allow others to examine the research
project and its methods.
• To get clearance and authority from the
government and ethics committee to carry out
the research
 Content.
• Project title.
• Your name and index number.
• Name, titles and designations of your supervisor,
tutor or lecturer.
• Name of the department, and college or
university.
• Statement of the research problem.
• Rationale or justification of research.
• Brief relevant literature review.
 Ctied
• Research methodology or design.
• Methods of data analysis.
• Ethical considerations taken into account.
• Preparation of study report.
• Timeline of the study.
• Study budget.
• Appendices.
 Time Line or Time Schedule
• Included in your proposal is a schedule for
your study.
• The activities you intend to undertake during
the process of your study are summarized in a
table format
 Ctied
• It has the activities on the first column and on
the first row is the duration of time that is
required to complete the tasks.
• The researcher should clearly write the details
of the activities which will then be
summarized in the time line
 Study Budget
• Include all expenses that you are likely to incur
during the research otherwise, you may find
yourself unable to complete your research due
to lack of funds.
 Appendix IV: Budget

Item/activity Cost (KES)

Stationery 1,000

Secretarial Services 10,000

Travelling and accommodation 10,000

Printing 5,000

Photocopying and Binding 6,000

Data analysis 20,000

Contingencies 10,000
 Communicating the Research Findings

• Ways of communicating the research

findings.
– A written report for academic purposes, for
example, a project, dissertation or a thesis.
– A written report prepared for managers and policy
implementers.
– A written report sent as an article for publication in
refereed journals.
– Presentations of the research findings in workshops,
seminars and conferences
 Characteristics of a good research report

• Conciseness- saves the readers time and forces the

writer to refine his ideas.
• Clarity-helps the reader to understand the points
being made.
• Honesty- freedom from fraud. Maintains the respect
of the reader and the integrity of the author
• completeness.-full details. Enables the reader to
evaluate the study.
• Accuracy- quality of being precise and free of error
 Outline of a research report
• The Title
– The title should be an accurate reflection of the
research carried out.
– Both meaningful and brief.
– It should not exceed fifteen words (Brink, 1996)
 Ctied
• Abstract
– The abstract is a very brief summary of the study
that includes the purpose of the study,
methodology and the major
research findings. It should not be longer than one
page.
 Ctied
• Table of content.
– A map that guides the readers in in locating
various sections of the research report.
 Ctied
• List of tables.
• List of figures.
• List of abbreviations and acronyms.
 Ctied
• Introduction
– Briefly, but clearly, explain the purpose of the
study.
– Introduce the key concepts.
– State clearly the hypothesis as well as the
objectives or research questions of the study.
 Ctied
• Background Information
– expound on any special circumstances of the study
and study area
• Literature Review
– The researcher should be able to show a gasp of
the theory applications and apply the knowledge
to the research.
 Ctied
• The Methodology
– provide information on how the research was
carried out.
– The methods section incorporates the following
aspects:
• Subjects, respondents or participants
• The task and the material or instruments used.
This should include:
 Ctied
• Description of all types of activities that the
participants were asked to perform.
• A list of materials and/or instruments used.
• Description of the considerations, which led to
this choice and how validity and reliability
were ensured.
NB: All questionnaires or interview schedules
should be included in an appendix.
 Ctied
• The research design and strategy:
• Specify the chosen design.
• Outline and explain choices which lay behind
strategy decisions.
• Analyse the data obtained.
• Give an account of the methods used to
analyse data.
 Ctied
• If a statistical design was used, discuss the
statistical tests applied to the obtained data to
test the various hypotheses.
• Explain procedures for handling missing data.
• Justify the validity and reliability of the scores.
• Outline the reasons why specific statistical
tests were used.
 Ctied
• Results
– The results section presents the findings and
involves the following:
– The main results from the data analysis.
– If a quantitative study was done, tables, graphs
and diagrams and the outcomes of statistical tests.
 Ctied
• In quantitative studies you must also give the
name of any statistical test used as well as the
value of the calculated statistics and its
significance. Accuracy and conciseness must
be adhered to throughout.
 Ctied
• Discussion
– Discussion of the study incorporates the following
elements:
– An interpretation of the findings, with specific
reference to validity and reliability.
– Re-state the research questions and hypotheses,
and discuss the results with reference to these
questions or hypotheses in the order they were
posed.
 Ctied
– Conclusions related to questions raised in the
introduction of the study.
• Study limitations.
– Here the limitations of the study should be
identified and you should defend the validity of
the findings in the light of these limitations.
Limitations include factors such as the inherent
weakness in the sampling method, faulty designs
and controls, weaknesses in the methods used to
collect data and so forth.
 Ctied
• Generalizations of the research findings.
Indicate whether you found what you had
expected and how the present results relate to
previous research.
• Connect the findings with similar studies. If any
unexpected, inconclusive or contradictory
results were obtained, discuss possible reasons
for such outcomes.
 Ctied
• Suggestions and recommendations. Relate your
findings to the questions raised in the introduction.
• State your recommendations as a result of your
study.
• You may also give some suggestions concerning
further research.
• References and Bibliography
– Present your references and bibliography in the
standard manner.
 Ctied
• Appendices.
– Contains information that the researcher does not
deem necessary to include in the body of the
report.
– Includes : instruments used in collecting data,
statistical tables from data analyses,
correspondence related to the study such as
letters of respondents’ consent to participate, and
letters of approval to conduct the research.
 TYPYING OF PROPOSAL/REPORT
SETTING
• Times new roman
• Font size 12
• line spacing 1.5

END