DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY-(SPR, CR, DR)

DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY
• a modern imaging technique in radiology that
captures radiographic images using digital
detectors instead of traditional photographic film.

• It employs flat panel detectors (FPDs) or charge-

coupled devices (CCDs) to convert
X-ray photons directly into digital signals,
producing high-resolution images almost
instantly.
How a Digital Radiographic Image is Formed?
 How a Digital Radiographic Image is Formed?

The image is
X-rays are
The detector These signals then displayed,
emitted from Detectors
converts X- are digitized enhanced, and
the X-ray tube capture the X-
rays into into a matrix of stored using
and pass rays that exit
electrical pixels, forming specialized
through the the body
signals. a digital image. software and
patient’s body.
PACS.
 Importance in modern radiology
• High Image Quality: Provides clear, detailed images for accurate diagnoses.
• Faster Results: Instant image availability speeds up diagnosis and treatment.
• Lower Radiation: Reduces patient exposure compared to traditional methods.
• Efficient Storage: Easy digital storage and retrieval via PACS.
• Improved Workflow: Streamlines processes, reducing manual effort and delays.
• Remote Access: Images can be viewed anywhere for consultations or second opinions.
• Eco-Friendly: No need for film or chemicals, reducing waste.
• Long-Term Cost Savings: Fewer consumables and lower operational costs.
Computed
Radiograp
hy
 Computed Radiography
• is a digital imaging technique that uses photostimulable phosphor
plates to capture X-ray images, replacing traditional film.

• records radiographic images on photostimulable phosphor plates

instead of film/screen image receptor

• Digitized so they can be stored and manipulated by computer and

display on high resolution monitor or recorded on film by using
laser printer.
PRINCIPLE OF COMPUTED RADIOGRAPHY
• Based on the Photostimulable Luminescence (PSL)
principle
• Photostimulable Luminescence (PSL) is a physical
process where certain materials can absorb energy from
X-ray photons, store that energy, and later release it as
visible light when stimulated by a different light source
(usually a red laser).
• such as barium fluorohalide with europium (BaFBr:Eu
or BaFI:Eu)
WORKING
MECHANIS
M OF CR
WORKING MECHANISM OF CR
X-ray beam interacts
↓
Electron in barium fluoro-halide crystal
↓
Energy transfer and reaches to excitation state
↓
50% of electron return to their ground state immediately resulting
prompt emission of light emission of light
↓
Remaining 50% return to ground state over a time this causes latent
image to fade and required IP to be read soon after exposure
↓
cassette fed in cassatte reader then emits red light
↓
remove IP and scan it with He-Ne lesser beam(633nm)
↓
lesser beam causes metastable state electron to return in

ground state with emission of blue light(390nm)

↓
emitted light detected by PMT
 PMT amplifies blue light and send to ADC
↓
digitizer converts analog to digital image
↓
Digitaly stored and viewed on a monitor
↓
after IP is read, erased by high intensity white light that
removes residual radiation
Components of CR
1. Image plate(IP)
2. Image plate reader
3. Image display system
4. Image storage system
 IMAGING PLATE

• In CR, image is capture in thin plastic sheet k/a IP.

• Is image receptor, PSP screen housed in rugged cassette.

• PSP screen of IP is not loaded & unloaded in darkroom.

• IP has lead backing that reduces backscatter radiation which improves contrast resolution of
image receptor.

• IP contains photostimulable storage phosphors which store radiation level received at each
point in local electron energies
• Plate is put through scanner, scanning laser beam causes electrons to relax to
lower energy levels (PSL), emitting light is detected by photomultiplier
tube, which is converted to electronic signal

• Electronic signal is converted to discrete/ digitals values & placed into

image processor pixel map.

• IP can be re-used thousands of times if they are handled carefully.

• IP automatically erase after laser scanning is complete.

Sizes of IP
• 35x43 cm (14" x 17"):
• 35x35 cm (14" x 14")
• 24x30 cm (10" x 12")
• 15x30 cm (6" x 12")
Layers of Imaging Plate
a) Protective layer
b) Phosphor layer
c) Reflective layer
d) Conductive layer
e) Supportive layer
Layer Of Image Plate
1. Protective layer
• Thin, tough, transparent plastic, typically polyurethane or other flexible
polymers
• Serves as a shield for the sensitive phosphor layer underneath.
• Protects against mechanical wear, scratches, contamination, and
handling damage.
 2. Phosphor layer
• Function:
• This is the most critical layer that stores the latent image.
• Absorbs the x-ray energy and stores it by trapping electrons in energy wells
(called F-centers).
• When later scanned with a red laser, the trapped electrons are released and
emit blue light — this emitted light is collected to form the image.

• Material:
• Photostimulable Phosphors (PSPs) — mainly barium fluorohalide
compounds doped with europium:
• BaFBr:Eu²⁺ (Barium Fluorobromide)
• BaFI:Eu²⁺ (Barium Fluoroiodide)
3. Reflective Layer

• Function:
• Reflects the light emitted by the phosphor layer back toward
the photodetector during laser scanning.
• Ensures maximum light collection and improves image
intensity.
• Material:
• Typically white pigment-based reflective material, e.g.,
titanium dioxide (TiO₂).
4. Conductive Layer

• Function:
• Dissipates electrostatic charge to prevent static artifacts.
• Also helps in absorbing scattered light, improving image
clarity and contrast resolution.
• Material:
• Conductive polymer (e.g., carbon black, indium tin oxide, or
other anti-static materials).
5. Support Layer

• Function:
• Acts as the mechanical backbone of the imaging plate.
• Provides structural stability, flexibility, and durability.
• Material:
• Usually a polyester base, such as polyethylene
terephthalate (PET).
6. Backing Layer

• Function:
• Protects the rear side of the plate.
• Often includes identification labels, barcodes, or anti-slip
coating.
• Material:
• Soft, rubberized or plastic material.
Light Stimulation -Emission
 Light Stimulation–Emission
• Radiation detection methods for occupational monitoring:

• Thermoluminescent Dosimetry (TLD) – emits light when heated

• Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) – emits light when illuminated

• Photostimulable Luminescence (PSL) – similar to OSL; used in Computed

Radiography (CR)
PSL – Latent Image Formation

• X-ray exposure excites electrons in the Photostimulable

Phosphor (PSP) to a metastable state
• About 50% of electrons return immediately → prompt light
emission
• Remaining electrons stay metastable → latent image
• Signal fades over time – IP must be read within 8 hours
PSL – Laser Stimulation

• Laser stimulation step:

• Infrared laser beam (50–100 µm diameter) scans PSP
• Laser intensity ↑ → stimulated emission ↑

• Beam spreads more with thicker PSPs → affects resolution

PSL – Stimulated Emission Detection

• Metastable electrons return to ground state → emit blue light

• Light is detected by Photodiodes (PDs)

• Signal loss sources:

1. Scattering of emitted light
2. Photodetector inefficiency for the collection of light.
PSL – Residual Image & Erasure

• Not all electrons return to ground state during readout

• Residual latent image → ghosting on reuse

• Erasure: intense white light from fluorescent lamps clears

PSP
Laser System in PSL

• Laser light is monochromatic:

• Older: HeNe gas laser
• Newer: solid-state laser (less interference)
• Emitted light is polychromatic but weaker than laser
• Optical filters used to block laser and pass emitted light
CR READER
• Is daylight film processer with combination of :

• Mechanical Features

• Optical Features

• Computer Control
 MECHANICAL FEATURES
• When the CR cassette is inserted into the reader, the imaging plate (IP) is
removed and fitted into a precision drive mechanism.

• The IP is moved slowly along its long axis — this is called the slow scan
direction.

• Small fluctuations in motor velocity can lead to banding artifacts, so the drive
must operate with absolute consistency.

• While the IP moves in the slow scan direction, a laser beam is deflected rapidly
back and forth across it using a rotating polygon or an oscillating mirror — this
is the fast scan direction.
• The laser beam is blanked during its return (retrace) to prevent distortion,
similar to how video monitors function.

• This mechanism must be extremely precise, with an error tolerance of only

fractions of a pixel. If the reader is out of tolerance, image edges may
appear wavy.

• In another design, the cassette is placed vertically, and the IP is withdrawn

downward while a horizontal laser scans it.

• This method reduces the chance of roller damage since the IP barely leaves
the cassette, and scanning occurs at right angles to the direction of
movement, enhancing image quality.
 OPTICAL FEATURES
• The CR reader must accurately stimulate each metastable electron in the latent
image for precise signal detection.

• The optical subsystem consists of a laser, beam-shaping optics, light-collecting

optics, optical filters, and a photodetector.

• The laser provides the stimulating light, but as the beam travels to the reflector, it
tends to spread. A lens system keeps the beam diameter small (less than 100 µm).

• As the laser beam is deflected across the imaging plate (IP), its size and shape
may change. Beam-shaping optics are used to maintain constant beam size,
shape, speed, and intensity.
• An everyday example: shining a flashlight perpendicularly on a wall shows a
circular beam, but moving it distorts the beam. Similar distortions in CR are
corrected by beam-shaping optics.

• The light emitted from the IP is collected through a funnel-shaped fiber optic
assembly and directed to the photodetector (PMT, PD, or CCD).

• Before detection, optical filters remove any remaining long-wavelength

stimulating light to prevent it from interfering with the weaker emitted signal.

• Filtering improves the signal-to-noise ratio by eliminating unwanted

stimulation light (considered noise) and preserving only the emitted light (the
actual signal).
 COMPUTER CONTROL
• The photodetector produces a time-varying analog signal that is sent to the
computer system for processing.

• This signal undergoes adjustments for amplitude, scale, and compression,

preparing it for image formation.

• The analog signal is then digitized, with proper sampling (timing of data points)
and quantization (assigning a value to each sample) to ensure accurate image
quality.
• A hard disk typically serves as the image buffer, temporarily storing the
processed image before it's sent to a workstation or archive system.

• The computer also controls the slow scan (IP movement) and fast scan
(laser deflection), synchronized precisely using the system's gigahertz
(GHz) clock.
 ADVANTAGE OF CR
• Compatible with existing X-ray equipment (no major modifications required)
• Re-usable imaging plates (IP) reduce the need for film stock
• Improved image quality with wide dynamic range and contrast resolution
• Digital image processing allows post-acquisition enhancement (e.g., zoom,
contrast)
• Lower radiation dose compared to traditional film in some cases
• Easy image storage, retrieval, and sharing through PACS
• Environmentally friendly – no need for chemical processing
• Faster workflow than film-based systems
 DISADVANTAGE OF CR

• Slower than Digital Radiography (DR) due to extra steps (cassette handling
and processing)
• Imaging plates are prone to wear and damage over time
• Artifacts can occur from dust, scratches, or improper handling
• Requires manual loading and unloading of cassettes, increasing workload
• Lower spatial resolution compared to conventional film or DR in some
applications
• Initial system cost (reader and software) can be high
• Needs regular quality control and maintenance
 SCANNED PROJECTION RADIOGRAPHY
• is an advanced radiographic imaging
technique where a narrow fan beam of X-rays
is scanned across the patient, and detectors
capture the transmitted radiation to produce a
digital image.

• Unlike conventional radiography, SPR builds

the image line-by-line, similar to how a
photocopier works.
 SCANNED PROJECTION RADIOGRAPHY
• During the 1980s and early 1990s, SPR was adapted for dedicated chest
digital radiography.

• Its main advantage was the use of a fan-shaped x-ray beam, which helped in
scatter radiation rejection and contrast improvement.

• The fan beam was formed by pre-patient collimators, and post-patient x-rays
were also collimated to match the detector array.

• Detectors included scintillation phosphors like NaI or CsI, coupled with linear
CCD arrays through fiberoptic pathways.
How does SPR works ?​
A tightly collimated fan-shaped X-ray beam is produced, covering a thin
vertical slice of the patient at a time.
↓
The patient lies on the CT couch and is driven through the gantry while the
X-ray tube is energized. Both the X-ray tube and detector array remain
stationary.
↓
The X-ray beam scans line-by-line across the body in a sweeping motion.
Each line is imaged sequentially to build the full picture.
 A linear detector array opposite the X-ray source captures the transmitted
radiation from each scanned line. The detectors are usually solid-state (e.g.,
CsI with photodiodes).
↓
Signals from each detector element are digitized immediately. The system
records a series of narrow image slices that match the scanned lines.
↓
All the captured lines are reconstructed and stitched together to form a
complete 2D image using fast, advanced computing algorithms.
↓
The final image can be viewed, enhanced, and stored digitally. It is
commonly used for CT planning, orthopedic assessments, and
tomosynthesis.
DIRECT DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY
• digital X-ray imaging system that converts X-ray photons directly
into electrical signals using a photoconductor, typically amorphous
selenium (a-Se), without the intermediate step of converting X-rays
into light.

• This direct conversion process results in high spatial resolution and

reduced signal loss, making it ideal for applications requiring fine
detail, such as mammography.
• digital registration of image takes place directly at detector with no
immediate processing step such as cassette readout in CR.

• Eliminates need for an image plate altogether.

DETECTORS
Detectors

Charge-coupled
Device Flat panel
(Cesium detectors
Iodide)

Indirect FPD
(Amorphous
Silicon/Cesium
Iodide)

Direct FPD
(Amorphous
Selenium)
 Charge-Coupled Device (CCD)
• a silicon-based semiconductor used as a light-
sensitive detector in digital imaging systems.

• converts light photons into electrical signals,

enabling the capture of high-quality digital
images with high sensitivity, wide dynamic
range, and compact size.

• In digital radiography, CCDs are used to detect

light emitted from a scintillator and convert it into
digital data for image formation
Main Imaging Characteristics

[Link]: Can detect very low levels of visible light (important for low-
dose imaging).

[Link] Range: Can handle a wide range of light intensities (dim to

bright).

[Link]: Very small (1–2 cm), making it adaptable for DR systems.

CCD vs. Screen-Film Systems
Parameter CCD Screen Film

[Link] response Linear Non-linear (H&D curve )

2. Dynamic Range 0-10,000 (4 decades) 0-3 OD(3 decades)

3. Visible Grey Thousands via post processing ~30 perceivable sensitive

4. Low dose performance Better than screen film Less sensitive

CESIUM IODIDE/ CHARGE-COUPLED DEVICE
• This system uses tiled CCDs combined
with a Cesium Iodide (CsI) scintillator.

• Enables imaging with a broad-area X-

ray beam (unlike Scanned Projection
Radiography, SPR).

• Designed for short exposure time and

efficient image capture.
Key Features
[Link]: Cesium Iodide (CsI)
• Converts incoming X-rays into visible light
• Structured phosphor: limits light spread, improving spatial resolution

[Link]-Optic Coupling
• Light from CsI is channeled via fiberoptic bundles
• Maintains signal strength and image sharpness when reaching the CCD
array

[Link] CCD Array

• Multiple small CCD chips arranged to cover a large imaging area
•
 X-rays
↓
Hit the CsI Scintillator
↓
CsI Converts X-rays → Visible Light
Working ↓
Light Transmitted via Fiber-Optic Bundles
Principle
↓
CCD Array Captures Light
↓
CCD Converts Light → Digital Signal
↓
Multiple CCDs Are Tiled to Cover a Large Area
Advantages of CsI/CCD System

• High X-ray capture efficiency

• Good spatial resolution (up to 5 line pairs per mm)
• Short exposure time suitable for clinical workflow
• Versatile design—adaptable to various DR system types
Challenge: Seamless Tiling of CCDs
• Tiling multiple CCDs introduces gaps at chip boundaries

• Solution: Interpolation of pixel values across tile edges

→ Ensures a continuous, artifact-free image
 CESIUM IODIDE/AMORPHOUS SILICON
• An early and widely used indirect digital
radiography method

• Combines Cesium Iodide (CsI) as a

scintillator with amorphous silicon (a-Si) as
the photodiode layer

• Light from CsI is converted into an electrical

signal by the a-Si and read by TFT (Thin-
Film Transistor) arrays
 Key Components
Component Function

CsI Scintillator Converts X-rays →

visible light

Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) Converts light →

electrical charge

TFT Array Reads and transfers

charge for digital image
formation
Properties of Cesium Iodide (CsI)
• High atomic number: Cs = 55, I = 53
➤ Results in high X-ray absorption and low patient dose

• Structured crystal: Limits lateral light spread

➤ Maintains good spatial resolution
 X-rays
↓
Hit the CsI Scintillator
↓
CsI Emits Light Photons
↓
Working Light Detected by a-Si Photodiodes (in each pixel)
Principle ↓
Electrical Charge Stored in Capacitors
↓
Charge Read Out by TFT (Thin-Film Transistor)
Array
↓
Digital Image Formed
Pixel Structure and Fill Factor
• Each pixel includes:
• Light-sensitive a-Si photodiode
• TFT switch
• Capacitor

• Fill Factor: Percentage of the pixel area that is light-sensitive

• ~80% in most detectors
• Remaining 20% is occupied by electronics = signal loss
Trade-Offs in Pixel Design

• Pixel size ↓ Fill Factor ↓

• smaller pixels → Better spatial resolution

• BUT → More electronics per area → Reduced fill factor→

To compensate: Increase radiation dose or improve material
sensitivity
Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is being explored to:

oImprove fill factor
oIncrease signal sensitivity
oReduce radiation dose
Comparison with Gadolinium Oxysulfide (GdOS)
CsI GdOS

Structured crystals Turbid (unstructured) crystals

Less light spread More light scatter in screen-

film use
Better resolution in DR Resolution preserved in DR
due to digital capture
used in image intensifiers Used in traditional rare earth
screens
Advantages of CsI/a-Si DR Systems

• High sensitivity → Lower patient dose

• Good resolution → ~5 lp/mm or more

• Established technology → Widely used

• Works well with flat-panel detectors

Amorphous Selenium (a-Se)
• This modality is known as Direct
Digital Radiography (DDR)
• No scintillator involved → X-rays
interact directly with the
photoconductor
• Amorphous Selenium (a-Se) acts as:
o Capture element (absorbs X-rays)
o Coupling element (converts to
electrical signal)
Structure
• a-Se layer: ~200 μm thick
• Sandwiched between charged electrodes
• Supported on a TFT-based Active Matrix Array (AMA)
• Appears similar in layout to CsI/a-Si detectors but without a
scintillator
Working Principle of Amorphous Selenium DDR
X-rays
↓
Direct Interaction with Amorphous Selenium (a-Se)
↓
Ionization of Selenium Atoms
↓
Electron-Hole Pairs Are Generated
↓
Charge Collected by Storage Capacitor
↓
Charge Read by TFT Switches (Active Matrix Array)
↓
Digital Image Formed
 Advantages of a-Se DDR
Features Benefit

No Scintillator No light scatter → High spatial

resolution
Direct X-ray Conversion Simple architecture, less signal loss

Thin Uniform Layers Enables large-area detectors

Stable and Fast High-speed digital readout possible

Direct DR v/s Indirect DR
Feature SPR CR DR

Technology Line-scanning PSP plates Flat-panel

(laser-read) detectors

Workflow Slow Moderate Fast (real

time )
Portability Not portable Portable Limited
portability
Image Quality Moderate Good Excellent

Radiation Higher Moderate Lower

Dose
Use Today Rare Still common Widely used
1. What is the main difference between Computed Radiography (CR)
and Direct Radiography (DR)?

A. CR uses a scintillator to convert X-rays to light, DR directly

converts X-rays to electric signals
B. CR directly converts X-rays to electric signals, DR uses a scintillator
C. CR produces images on film, DR produces digital images only
D. CR is faster than DR in image acquisition
2. Which of the following best describes the latent image formation in
Computed Radiography (CR)?

A) X-rays directly produce electrical charges on an amorphous selenium

layer
B) X-rays create a trapped electron-hole pair in a photostimulable
phosphor plate
C) X-rays are converted to light photons by a scintillator, then to
electrical signals by a CCD
D) X-rays generate a current directly in a thin film transistor array
3. In Direct Digital Radiography (DDR), what material is commonly used
to convert X-rays directly into electrical charges?

A) Cesium iodide
B) Amorphous selenium
C) Gadolinium oxysulfide
D) Barium fluorohalide
4. What is the typical thickness range of the amorphous selenium layer
used in direct DR detectors?

A) 50–100 µm
B) 150–250 µm
C) 300–400 µm
D) 500–600 µm
5. In digital radiography, the Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE)
primarily measures:

A) The ability of the detector to convert X-rays into useful image signal
B) The speed at which images are acquired
C) The radiation dose delivered to the patient
D) The contrast resolution of the digital system
6. In Scanned Projection Radiography (SPR), the image is formed by:

A) A stationary broad X-ray beam and a fixed detector

B) A scanned narrow X-ray beam across the patient and a detector array
C) A photostimulable phosphor plate read by laser scanning
D) Direct conversion of X-rays by selenium layer
7. The Thin Film Transistor (TFT) array in a DR system functions
primarily as:

A) The image receptor converting X-rays into light

B) The electronic switch to read out stored charges from the detector
C) The laser scanner in CR systems
D) The processor converting digital data to an image
8. In indirect flat panel DR systems, which limitation of the scintillator
layer primarily contributes to reduced spatial resolution, and what
design improvement can mitigate this issue?

A) Limited X-ray absorption; mitigated by using higher kVp

B) Excessive light scatter; mitigated by using structured scintillators
like needle-shaped CsI
C) Low conversion efficiency; mitigated by thicker amorphous
selenium layer
D) Narrow dynamic range; mitigated by using analog-to-digital
converters with higher bit depth
9. What kind of detector does Computed Radiography use to capture the
X-ray image?

A) Scintillator coupled to a CCD

B) Photostimulable phosphor plate
C) Amorphous selenium flat panel detector
D) Gas ionization chamber
10. Which factor primarily influences spatial resolution in digital
radiography systems?

A) Size of the detector pixels

B) X-ray tube voltage (kVp)
C) Patient positioning
D) Exposure time
11. In Digital Radiography, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) improves
when:

A) Radiation dose decreases

B) Detector efficiency increases
C) Pixel size increases drastically
D) Image acquisition time decreases
12. What does the scintillator layer in indirect DR systems do?

A) Converts X-rays directly into electrical signals

B) Converts X-rays into visible light
C) Amplifies electrical signals
D) Stores latent images
13. Which digital radiography system commonly uses amorphous silicon
as the photodiode material?

A) Computed Radiography (CR)

B) Direct Radiography (DR) with indirect conversion
C) Scanned Projection Radiography (SPR)
D) Conventional Film Radiography
14. In the context of image quality and dose efficiency, which of the
following combinations provides the optimal performance in an indirect
DR system?

A) Large pixel size, low DQE, thick scintillator

B) Small pixel size, low DQE, thin scintillator
C) Small pixel size, high DQE, structured scintillator
D) Large pixel size, high DQE, unstructured scintillator
[Link] of the following does NOT affect the DQE (Detective
Quantum Efficiency) of a digital detector?

A. Absorption efficiency
B. Noise performance of electronics
C. Spatial resolution
D. Exposure latitude
16. In flat panel detectors used for Digital Radiography, what is the
primary reason amorphous selenium (a-Se) is preferred for direct
conversion over amorphous silicon (a-Si)?

A) a-Se has higher X-ray absorption efficiency and directly converts

X-rays to electrical charge
B) a-Se produces visible light which is easier to detect
C) a-Se is less expensive to manufacture than a-Si
D) a-Se has better mechanical flexibility for portable devices
1. A
2. B
3. B
4. B
5. A
6. B
7. B
8. B
9. B
10. A
11. B
12. B
13. B
14. C
15. D