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Electromagnetic Radiation and Electron Levels

Chapter 4 of 'General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry' discusses the nature of atoms and elements, focusing on electromagnetic radiation, atomic spectra, and electron energy levels. It explains how electrons occupy specific energy levels and sublevels, their configurations, and how these relate to the periodic table and chemical properties. The chapter also covers trends in atomic size and the significance of valence electrons in determining chemical behavior.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

14 views190 pages

Electromagnetic Radiation and Electron Levels

Uploaded by

Jorge Milton Fernández Palomino

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry

6th Edition

Chapter 4
Atoms and Elements

We experience electromagnetic radiation in different forms,

such as light, the colors of a rainbow, or X-rays.

Electromagnetic radiation consists of energy particles that

move as waves of energy.
• The distance between the peaks of waves is called the
wavelength.
• High-energy radiation has shorter wavelengths.
• Low-energy radiation has longer wavelengths.

The electromagnetic spectrum shows the arrangement of

wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, with the visible range
from 700 to 400 nm.

When light from a heated element passes through a prism,

it separates into distinct lines of color separated by dark
areas called an atomic spectrum.
Each element has its own unique atomic spectrum.

In an atomic spectrum, light from a heated element separates into distinct lines.

The lines in an atomic spectrum are associated with the

changes in energies of the electrons.
In an atom, each electron has a specific energy, known as
its energy level, which
• is assigned principal quantum numbers (n) = (n = 1,
n = 2, …).
• increases in energy as the value of n increases and
electrons are farther away from the nucleus.
The energy of an electron is quantized—electrons can have
only specific energy values.

• Electrons with the same

energy are grouped in the
same energy level.
• Energy levels are assigned
values called principal
quantum numbers (n),
(n = 1, n = 2, …).

An electron can have only the

energy of one of the energy levels
in an atom.

• Electrons move to a
higher energy level
when they absorb
energy.
• When electrons fall
back to a lower energy
level, light is emitted.
• The energy emitted or
absorbed is equal to the
differences between the
two energy levels.

It is the arrangement of electrons that determines the

physical and chemical properties of an element.
• Each energy level consists of one or more sublevels.
• The number of sublevels in an energy level is equal to
the principal quantum number n of that energy level.
• The sublevels are identified as s, p, d, and f.
• The order of sublevels in an energy level is
s<p<d<f
Lowest Highest
energy energy

The location of an electron is

described in terms of probability.
• Orbitals are a three-
dimensional volume in which
electrons have the highest
probability of being found.
• The s orbitals are shown as
spheres.
(a) The electron cloud of an s orbital
represents the highest probability of
finding an s electron. (b) The s orbitals
are shown as spheres. The sizes of the
s orbitals increase because they contain
electrons at higher energy levels.

There are three p orbitals, starting with n = 2.

• Each p orbital has two lobes, like a balloon tied in
the middle, and can hold a maximum of two
electrons.
• The three p orbitals are arranged perpendicular
to each other along the x, y, and z axes around
the nucleus.

A p orbital has two regions of high probability, which gives a “dumbbell” shape. (a)
Each p orbital is aligned along a different axis from the other p orbitals. (b) All three p
orbitals are shown around the nucleus.

The d sublevels contain five d orbitals.

Four of the five d

orbitals consist of four
lobes that are aligned
along or between
different axes. One d
orbital consists of two
lobes and a doughnut-
shaped ring around its
center.

The Pauli exclusion principle states that

• each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons.
• electrons in the same orbital repel each other.
• electrons in the same orbital must have their magnetic
spins cancel (they must spin in opposite directions).
We can represent magnetic spins with an arrow

An orbital can hold up to

two electrons with
opposite spins.

There is a maximum number of electrons that can fill each

sublevel.
• Each s sublevel has one orbital and can hold a maximum
of two electrons.
• Each p sublevel has three orbitals and can hold a
maximum of six electrons.
• Each d sublevel has five orbitals and can hold a
maximum of 10 electrons.
• Each f sublevel has 7 orbitals and can hold a maximum
of 14 electrons.

Indicate the type and number of orbitals in each of the

following energy levels or sublevels.
a. n = 1
b. 3p sublevel

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Solution
Indicate the type and number of orbitals in each of the
following energy levels or sublevels.

ANALYZE GIVEN NEED CONNECT

THE energy level, orbitals n, orbitals in
PROBLEM sublevel s, p, d, f

a. n = 1
The n = 1 energy level contains one 1s orbital.

b. 3p sublevel
The 3p sublevel contains three 3p orbitals.

Electron configurations follow the order of occupied

sublevels on the periodic table.

Learning Goal: Draw the orbital diagram and write the

electron configuration for an element.
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Orbital Diagrams

Orbital diagrams use boxes to show how electrons

• are arranged in the orbitals of an atom.
• fill the orbitals and energy levels from lowest to highest
energy level.
• fill orbitals within the same sublevel one at a time, before
pairing the electrons.

Chemists use a notation called electron configuration to

• indicate the placement of electrons in an atom.
• show how electrons fill energy levels and sublevels in order of
increasing energy.
• write an abbreviated form using a noble gas to represent all
electrons preceding it.

Electron Configuration for Carbon

Nitrogen atoms are found in amino acids, proteins, and

nucleic acids. Draw the orbital diagram for nitrogen.

Nitrogen’s atomic number is 7, which means it has seven

electrons. For the orbital diagram, we draw boxes to
represent the 1s, 2s, and 2p orbitals.

Nitrogen atoms are found in amino acids, proteins, and

nucleic acids. Draw the orbital diagram for nitrogen.

First we place a pair of electrons with opposite spins in

the1s and 2s orbitals.

Nitrogen atoms are found in amino acids, proteins, and

nucleic acids. Draw the orbital diagram for nitrogen.

Place three remaining electrons in the three separate 2p

orbitals, with arrows drawn in the same direction.

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Electron Configurations and the Periodic
Table
The electron configurations of elements are related to their
positions on the periodic table. Different sections or blocks
correspond to sublevels s, p, d, and f.

1. The s block contains elements in Groups 1A (1) and 2A

(2). This means the final one or two electrons are in the
s sublevel.

2. The p block consists of elements in Group 3A (13) to

Group 8A (18). There are six p block elements in each
period, because three p orbitals can hold a maximum of
six electrons.

3. The d block, which contains transition elements, first

appears after calcium (atomic number 20). There are
10 elements in the d block, because five d orbitals can
hold a maximum of 10 electrons.
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Blocks on the
Periodic Table
4. The f block, the inner transition elements, is the two rows
of elements at the bottom of the periodic table. There are
14 elements in each f block, because seven f orbitals
can hold a maximum of 14 electrons.

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Electron Configurations: Period 4 and
Above
Beginning in Period 4,
• the 4s sublevel fills before the 3d sublevel, because the
3d sublevel is slightly higher in energy than the 4s
sublevel.
• the 5s sublevel fills before the 4d sublevel.
• the 6s sublevel fills before the 5d sublevel.

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3d Sublevel Exceptions
• For chromium (Cr), moving one of the 4s electrons to the 3d
sublevel adds stability with a half-filled d subshell, and the resulting
configuration is 4s13d5.

• For copper (Cu), moving one of the 4s electrons to the 3d sublevel

adds stability with a filled d subshell, and the resulting configuration
is 4s13d10.

Use the periodic table to give the symbol and name for the
element with the electron configuration of
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d7.

There are seven electrons in the 3d sublevel. Thus, the

element is cobalt (Co).

The atomic size of representative elements is affected by

the attractive forces between the protons in the nucleus
and the electrons in the outermost energy level.

Learning Goal: Use the electron configurations of elements

to explain the trends in periodic properties.
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Group Numbers:
Valence Electrons
• For representative elements in Groups 1A (1)–8A (18),
chemical properties are mostly due to the valence
electrons.
• Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost
energy level.
• The group number gives the number of valence electrons
for the representative elements.

Valence Electron Configuration for Representative

Elements in Periods 1 to 4

Using the periodic table, write the group number, the

period, and the valence electron configuration for the
following:
A. calcium
B. lead

The valence electrons are the outermost s and p electrons.

Although they may have electrons in the d or f sublevel,
they are not valence electrons.

A. Calcium is in Group 2A (2), Period 4. It has a valence

electron configuration of 4s2.

B. Lead is in Group 4A (14), Period 6. It has a valence

electron configuration of 6s26p2.

Lewis symbols represent the valence electrons as dots

placed on sides of the symbol for an element.
• One to four valence electrons are arranged as single
dots.
• Five to eight valence electrons are arranged with at least
one pair of electrons around the symbol for the element.

Lewis Symbols for Magnesium

Lewis Symbols for Selected Elements in Periods 1 to 4

Atomic size
• is determined by the atom’s atomic radius, the distance
between the nucleus and the outermost electrons.
• increases for representative elements from top to bottom
of the periodic table.
• decreases within a period as a result of increased
number of protons in the nucleus.

For representative elements, the atomic size increases

going down a group but decreases going from left to right
across a period.

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Group Numbers:
Valence Electrons
• For representative elements in Groups 1A (1)–8A (18),
chemical properties are mostly due to the valence
electrons.
• Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost
energy level.
• The group number gives the number of valence electrons
for the representative elements.

Valence Electron Configuration for Representative

Elements in Periods 1 to 4

Lewis Symbols for Selected Elements in Periods 1 to 4

Ionization energy is the energy required to remove one of

the outermost electrons.
Na(g) + energy (ionization)  Na+(g) + e−

• As the distance from the nucleus to the valence

electrons increases, the ionization energy decreases.
• The ionization energy is low for metals and high for the
nonmetals.
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Ionization Energy

Ionization energy decreases

down a group and increases
going across a period from left
to right.

An element with metallic character is one that loses

valence electrons easily.

Metallic character
• is more prevalent in metals on the left side of the
periodic table.
• is less for nonmetals on the right side of the periodic table
that do not lose electrons easily.
• increases going down a group, as electrons are farther
away from the nucleus.

The metallic character

of the representative
elements increases
going down a group
and decreases going
from left to right across
a period.

Given the elements C, N, and F,

A. which is the largest atom?

B. which has the highest ionization energy?
C. which belongs to Group 5A (15)?

Given the elements C, N, and F,

A. which is the largest atom? C

B. which has the highest ionization energy? F
C. which belongs to Group 5A (15)? N

Complete each of the following statements with decreases

or increases.

A. Going down Group 6A (16), the ionization energy

_______.
B. Going across Period 3, from left to right, the atomic size
_______.
C. Going down Group 2A (2), the metallic character
_______.

Complete each of the following statements with decreases

or increases.

A. Going down Group 6A (16), the ionization energy

decreases.
B. Going across Period 3, from left to right, the atomic size
decreases.
C. Going down Group 2A (2), the metallic character
increases.

Copyright © 2019, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry
6th Edition

Chapter 6
Ionic and Molecular
Compounds

Learning Goal: Write the symbols for the simple ions of the
representative elements.

Atoms, lose, gain, or share electrons to acquire an octet of

eight valence electrons in the formation of either an ionic or
covalent bond.

• Ionic bonds occur when valence electrons of a metal atom

are transferred to the atom of a nonmetal.

• Covalent bonds occur when nonmetal atoms share

electrons to attain a noble gas arrangement.

In ionic bonding, ions form when atoms gain or lose their

valence electrons to form a stable electron configuration.
Metals, Group 1A (1), Group 2A (2), and Group 3A (13)
• have low ionization energies.
• readily lose one or more of their valence electrons to form
ions with a positive charge.
• lose electrons until they have the same number of valence
electrons as the nearest noble gas, usually eight valence
electrons.

A positively-charged ion, called a cation, is named by its

element name.
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Positive Ions: Loss of Electrons

Sodium atoms in Group 1A (1) are neutral, with 11 electrons and

11 protons, they
• lose one electron to have the same number of valence electrons
as neon and a filled energy level.
• will form an ion with 10 electrons, 11 protons, and an ionic charge
of 1+: Na+ (sodium ion).

Magnesium atoms in Group 2A (2) are neutral, and they have

12 electrons and 12 protons. They
• will lose two electrons to have the same number of valence
electrons as neon and a filled energy level.
• form an ion with 10 electrons, 12 protons, and an ionic charge of
2+: Mg2+ (magnesium ion).

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Negative Ions:
Gain of Electrons
Nonmetals, Group 5A (15), Group 6A (16), and
Group 7A (17)
• have high ionization energies.
• readily gain one or more valence electrons to form ions with
a negative charge.
• gain electrons until they have the same number of valence
electrons as the nearest noble gas, usually eight valence
electrons.

A negatively charged ion, called an anion, is named by using

the first syllable of its element name followed by ide.

We can use the group

numbers in the periodic
table to determine the
charges for the ions of
the representative
elements.

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Chemistry Link to Health: Some
Important Ions in the Body
Ions are important in regulating body functions.
Ion Occurrence Function Source
Na+ Principal cation outside Regulates and Salt, cheese,
the cell controls body fluids pickles
K+ Principal cation inside Regulates body Bananas, potatoes,
the cell fluids and cellular orange juice, milk
functions

Ca2+ Cation outside the cell; Major cation in Milk, yogurt,

90% of calcium in the bones, needed for cheese, greens,
body in bones muscle contractions spinach

Mg2+ Cation outside the cell; Essential for certain Chlorophyll, nuts,
50% of magnesium in enzymes, muscles, grains
the body in bones nerve control

Consider the elements calcium and chlorine.

A. Identify each as a metal or a nonmetal.
B. State the number of valence electrons
for each.
C. State the number of electrons that must be lost or gained
for each to acquire an octet.
D. Write the symbol, including its ionic charge, and name of
each resulting ion.

Consider the elements calcium and chlorine.

A. Identify each as a metal or a nonmetal.
metal = calcium; nonmetal = chlorine
B. State the number of valence electrons for each.
Calcium has two valence electrons.
Chlorine has seven valence electrons.

Consider the elements calcium and chlorine.

C. State the number of electrons that must be lost or gained
for each to acquire an octet.
Calcium will lose two electrons to acquire an octet.
Chlorine will gain one electron to acquire an octet.
D. Write the symbol, including its ionic charge, and name of
each resulting ion.
Ca2+ calcium ion
Cl− chloride ion

Learning Goal: Using charge balance,

write the correct formula for an ionic
compound.

Ionic compounds consist of positive and

negative charges held together by the
strong electrical attractions between
oppositely charged ions.

Ionic compounds
• consist of positive and negative ions.
• have attractions called ionic bonds between positively
and negatively charged ions.
• have high melting points.
• are solids at room temperature.

Sodium chloride is more

commonly known as table
salt. The magnification of
NaCl crystals shows the
arrangement of Na+ and
Cl− ions in an NaCl
crystal.

In a chemical formula,
• the symbols and subscripts are written in the lowest
whole-number ratio of the atoms or ions.
• the sum of ionic charges in the formula equals zero.
• the total positive charge = total negative charge.

To balance ionic charge in an ionic compound,

total positive charge = total negative charge

Select the correct formula for each of the following ionic

compounds.
1. Na+ and O2−
A. NaO B. Na2O C. NaO2
2. Al3+ and Cl−
A. AlCl3 B. AlCl C. Al3Cl
3. Mg2+ and N3−
A. MgN B. Mg2N3 C. Mg3N2

Select the correct formula for each of the following ionic

compounds.
1. Na+ and O2− B. Na2O Check:
2Na+ + O2− = 2(1+) + 1(2−) = 0
2. Al3+ and Cl− A. AlCl3 Check:
Al3+ + 3Cl− = (3+) + 3(1−) = 0
3. Mg2+ and N3− C. Mg3N2 Check:
3Mg2+ + 2N3− = 3(2+) + 2(3−) = 0

Iodized salt contains Kl, potassium

iodide, to prevent iodine deficiency.

Learning Goal: Given the formula of

an ionic compound, write the correct
name; given the name of an ionic
compound, write the correct formula.

When naming an ionic compound,

• the name of the metal is written first and is the same as
the name of the element.
• the name of the nonmetal is the first syllable of the
nonmetal name + ide ending and is written second.
• a space is placed between the name of the metal and
nonmetal ion.

Write the formulas and names for compounds of the

following ions:
Br− S2− N3−

Na+

Al3+

Write the formulas and names for compounds of the

following ions:
Br− S2− N3−

NaBr Na2S Na3N

Na+ sodium bromide sodium sulfide sodium nitride

AlBr3 Al2S3 AlN

Al3+ aluminum aluminum aluminum
bromide sulfide nitride

Transition metals except for Zn2+, Cd2+, and Ag+ form two or
more positive ions (cations).

A Roman numeral equal to the ion charge is placed in

parentheses immediately after the metal name.

Cu2+ copper(II) Pb2+ lead(II)

Cu+ copper(I) Pb4+ lead(IV)
Fe2+ iron(II) Cr2+ chromium(II)
Fe3+ iron(III) Cr3+ chromium(III)

Use the charge on the anion and charge balance to

calculate charge on the metal ion.

MnF2

Mn charge + 2 F− charge = 0
? + 2 (1−) = 0
2+ + 2− =0

Manganese(II) fluoride

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Naming Ionic Compounds with Variable
Charge Metal Ions
Name the ionic compound FeCl2.
ANALYZE THE GIVEN NEED CONNECT
PROBLEM FeCl2 name cation, anion, charge balance

STEP 1 Determine the charge of the cation from

the anion.
Metal Nonmetal
Element iron (Fe) chlorine (Cl)
Group transition element 7A(17)
Ion Fe? Cl−
Charge balance Fe? + 2(1−) = 0
1(2+) + 2(1−) = 0
Ion Fe2+ Cl−

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Naming Ionic Compounds with Variable
Charge Metal Ions
Name the ionic compound FeCl2.
STEP 2 Name the cation by its element name, and use
a Roman numeral in parentheses for the charge.
iron(II)
STEP 3 Name the anion by using the first syllable of
its element name followed by ide. chloride
STEP 4 Write the name for the cation first and the
anion second. iron(II) chloride

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Writing Formulas from the Name of an
Ionic Compound
The formula for an ionic
compound is written from,
• the first part of the name
that describes the metal
ion.
• the second part of the
name that specifies the
nonmetal ion.
Subscripts are added to
balance the charge.

Write the formula for iron(III) chloride.

ANALYZE THE GIVEN NEED CONNECT
PROBLEM iron(III) chloride formula cation, anion,
charge
balance

STEP 1 Identify the cation and anion.

Type of Ion Cation Anion

Name iron(III) chloride
Group transition element 7A(17)
Symbol of Ion Fe3+ Cl−

Write the formula for iron(III) chloride.

STEP 2 Balance the charges.
The charge of 3+ is balanced by three Cl− ions.
1(3+) + 3(1−) = 0

STEP 3 Write the formula, cation first, using

subscripts from the charge balance. FeCl3

Write chemical formulas for the following compounds:

A. nickel(II) sulfide
B. zinc chloride
C. iron(III) oxide

Write chemical formulas for the following compounds.

STEP 1 Identify the cation and anion.

A. nickel(II) sulfide
The Roman numeral (II) indicates that the charge on
the nickel ion is 2+, Ni2+. The anion sulfide is S2−.
B. zinc chloride
Zinc is one of the transition metals with a fixed
charge of 2+, Zn2+. The anion chloride is Cl−.
C. iron(III) oxide
The Roman numeral (III) indicates that the charge
on the iron ion is 3+, Fe3+. The anion oxide is O2−.
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Solution
Write chemical formulas for the following compounds.
STEP 2 Balance the charges.
A. nickel(II) sulfide
The charge of 2+ is balanced by one S2− ion.
1(2+) + 1(2−) = 0
B. zinc chloride
The charge of 2+ is balanced by two Cl− ions

1(2+) + 2(1−) = 0
C. iron(III) oxide
The charge of 2(3+) is balanced by three O2− ions
2(3+) + 3(2−) = 0
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Solution

Write chemical formulas for the following compounds.

STEP 3 Write the formula, cation first, using

subscripts from the charge balance.
A. nickel(II) sulfide NiS
B. zinc chloride ZnCl2
C. iron(III) oxide Fe2O3

Iodized salt contains Kl, potassium

iodide, to prevent iodine deficiency.

Learning Goal: Given the formula of

an ionic compound, write the correct
name; given the name of an ionic
compound, write the correct formula.

When naming an ionic compound,

Write the formulas and names for compounds of the

following ions:
Br− S2− N3−

Na+

Al3+

Write the formulas and names for compounds of the

following ions:
Br− S2− N3−

NaBr Na2S Na3N

Na+ sodium bromide sodium sulfide sodium nitride

AlBr3 Al2S3 AlN

Al3+ aluminum aluminum aluminum
bromide sulfide nitride

Transition metals except for Zn2+, Cd2+, and Ag+ form two or
more positive ions (cations).

A Roman numeral equal to the ion charge is placed in

parentheses immediately after the metal name.

Cu2+ copper(II) Pb2+ lead(II)

Cu+ copper(I) Pb4+ lead(IV)
Fe2+ iron(II) Cr2+ chromium(II)
Fe3+ iron(III) Cr3+ chromium(III)

Use the charge on the anion and charge balance to

calculate charge on the metal ion.

MnF2

Mn charge + 2 F− charge = 0
? + 2 (1−) = 0
2+ + 2− =0

Manganese(II) fluoride

STEP 1 Determine the charge of the cation from

the anion.
Metal Nonmetal
Element iron (Fe) chlorine (Cl)
Group transition element 7A(17)
Ion Fe? Cl−
Charge balance Fe? + 2(1−) = 0
1(2+) + 2(1−) = 0
Ion Fe2+ Cl−

Name the following ionic compound containing a variable

charge metal. SnO2

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Solution
Name the following ionic compound containing a variable
charge metal. SnO2

ANALYZE THE GIVEN NEED CONNECT

PROBLEM SnO2 name cation, anion, charge balance

STEP 1 Determine the charge of the cation from

the anion. Metal Nonmetal
Element tin (Sn) oxygen (O)
Group transition element 6A(16)
Ion Sn? O2−
Charge Sn? + 2(2−) = 0
balance 1(4+) + 2(2−) = 0
Ion Sn4+ O2−

Name the following ionic compound containing a variable

charge metal. SnO2

STEP 2 Name the cation by its element name and use

a Roman numeral in parentheses for the charge. tin(IV)
STEP 3 Name the anion by using the first syllable
of its element name followed by ide. oxide
STEP 4 Write the name for the cation first and the
anion second. tin(IV) oxide

Write the formula for iron(III) chloride.

ANALYZE THE GIVEN NEED CONNECT
PROBLEM iron(III) chloride formula cation, anion,
charge
balance

STEP 1 Identify the cation and anion.

Type of Ion Cation Anion

Name iron(III) chloride
Group transition element 7A(17)
Symbol of Ion Fe3+ Cl−

Write the formula for iron(III) chloride.

STEP 2 Balance the charges.
The charge of 3+ is balanced by three Cl− ions.
1(3+) + 3(1−) = 0

STEP 3 Write the formula, cation first, using

subscripts from the charge balance. FeCl3

Write chemical formulas for the following compounds:

A. nickel(II) sulfide
B. zinc chloride
C. iron(III) oxide

Write chemical formulas for the following compounds.

STEP 1 Identify the cation and anion.

1(2+) + 2(1−) = 0
C. iron(III) oxide
The charge of 2(3+) is balanced by three O2− ions
2(3+) + 3(2−) = 0
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Solution

Write chemical formulas for the following compounds.

STEP 3 Write the formula, cation first, using

subscripts from the charge balance.
A. nickel(II) sulfide NiS
B. zinc chloride ZnCl2
C. iron(III) oxide Fe2O3

Polyatomic ions
• are a group of covalently bonded atoms with an overall
ionic charge.
• often consist of a nonmetal such as phosphorus, sulfur,
carbon, or nitrogen covalently bonded to oxygen atoms.
• usually have a 1−, 2−, or 3− charge.
• have a negative charge, except for NH4+, ammonium,
which has a positive charge,

Many products contain polyatomic ions, which are groups

of ions that have an ionic charge.

1. Names of most common polyatomic ions end in ate.

SO42− sulfate

PO43− phosphate

NO3− nitrate

2. When a related ion has one less oxygen, its name ends in ite.
SO32− sulfite

PO33− phosphite

NO2− nitrite
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Names of Polyatomic Ions

3. Exceptions to these rules are the following:

CN− cyanide
OH− hydroxide

4. Add an H+ to the polyatomic ion, and add +1 to its charge.

CO32− + H+ = HCO3−

carbonate + H+ = bicarbonate or hydrogen

carbonate
SO42− + H+ = HSO4−

sulfate + H+ = bisulfate or hydrogen sulfate

5. Halogens form 4 polyatomic ions with oxygen.

Each has a −1 charge.
ClO4− perchlorate

ClO3− chlorate

ClO2− chlorite
ClO− hypochlorite

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Writing Formulas Containing
Polyatomic Ions
When writing formulas containing polyatomic ions, we use
the same rules of charge balance as those for simple ionic
compounds.
Consider the formula for magnesium nitrate:
Magnesium ion Nitrate ion
Parentheses are placed around the
Mg 2+
+ NO3 −
polyatomic ion, and the subscript is
placed just outside the parentheses.
NO3−
(2+) + 2(1−) = 0
Mg2+ + 2 NO3− = Mg(NO3)2

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Writing Formulas Containing
Polyatomic Ions
Write the formula for aluminum bicarbonate.

ANALYZE THE GIVEN NEED CONNECT

PROBLEM aluminum formula cation, polyatomic
anion, bicarbonate
charge balance

STEP 1 Identify the cation and polyatomic ion (anion).

Cation Polyatomic ion
Al3+ HCO3−

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Writing Formulas with Polyatomic Ions,
Aluminum Bicarbonate
Write the formula for aluminum bicarbonate.
STEP 2 Balance the charges.
The charge of 3+ is balanced by three HCO3− ions.
1(3+) + 3(1−) = 0
STEP 3 Write the formula, cation first, using the
subscripts from charge balance. Al(HCO3)3

Write the formula for sodium phosphate.

Copyright © 2019, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Solution
Write the formula for sodium phosphate.

ANALYZE THE GIVEN NEED CONNECT

PROBLEM sodium formula cation, polyatomic anion,
phosphate charge balance

STEP 1 Identify the cation and polyatomic ion

(anion).
Cation Polyatomic ion
Na+ PO43−

Write the formula for sodium phosphate.

STEP 2 Balance the charges.
The charge of 3− is balanced by three Na+ ions.
3(1+) + 1(3−) = 0
STEP 3 Write the formula, cation first, using the
subscripts from charge balance.
Na3PO4

Copyright © 2019, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Naming Ionic Compounds Containing
Polyatomic Ions
When naming ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions,
• first write the positive ion, usually a metal.
• write the name of the polyatomic ion second.
Recognizing polyatomic ions in a chemical formula helps to
name it correctly. As with other ionic compounds, no
prefixes are used.

Copyright © 2019, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Learning Check
Select the correct formula for each.
1. aluminum nitrate
A. AlNO3 B. Al(NO) 3 C. Al(NO3) 3
2. copper(II) nitrate
A. CuNO3 B. Cu(NO3)2 C. Cu2 (NO3)
3. iron(III) hydroxide
A. FeOH B. Fe3OHC. Fe(OH)3
4. tin(IV) hydroxide
A. Sn(OH)4 B. Sn(OH)2 C. Sn4(OH)

Select the correct formula for each.

1. aluminum nitrate C. Al(NO3)3
2. copper(II) nitrate B. Cu(NO3)2
3. iron(III) hydroxide C. Fe(OH)3
4. tin(IV) hydroxide A. Sn(OH)4

Name each of the following compounds containing

polyatomic ions.
A. MgSO3

B. MgSO4

C. Pb3(PO3)2

Name the following ionic compounds:

STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3 STEP 4

IdentifyName Name Name
cation/anion cation anion compound

A. MgSO3 Mg2+ SO32− magnesium sulfite

magnesium

sulfite

B. MgSO4 Mg2+ SO42− magnesium sulfate

magnesium

sulfate

Copyright © 2019, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Activity!
• Complete the "Naming Ionic Compounds" worksheet.
• Work with partners to compare answers.
• This will be graded but is worth less than 3% of your grade.

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Balancing with Polyatomic Ions

Balance the following chemical equation:

Na3PO4(aq) + MgCl2(aq)  Mg3(PO4)2(s) + NaCl(aq)
ANALYZE GIVEN NEED CONNECT
THE reactants, balanced equal numbers of atoms
in
PROBLEM products equation reactants and products

STEP 1 Write an equation using the correct formulas for

the reactants and products.

Na3PO4(aq) + MgCl2(aq)  Mg3(PO4)2(s) + NaCl(aq)

STEP 2 Count the atoms of each element in the

reactants and products. Balance the phosphate ion as a
unit.
Na3PO4(aq) + MgCl2(aq)  Mg3(PO4)2(s) + NaCl(aq)

Ion Reactants Products

Na+ 3 1 Not balanced
PO43− 1 2 Not balanced
Mg2+ 1 3 Not balanced
Cl− 2 1 Not balanced

STEP 3 Use coefficients to balance each element.

2Na3PO4(aq) + 3MgCl2(aq)  Mg3(PO4)2(s) + 6NaCl(aq)

Ion Reactants Products

Na+ 6 6
PO43− 2 2
Mg2+ 3 3
Cl− 6 6

STEP 4 Check the final equation to confirm it is

balanced.
2Na3PO4(aq) + 3MgCl2(aq)  Mg3(PO4)2(s) + 6NaCl(aq)

Ion Reactants Products

Na+ 6 6 Balanced
PO43− 2 2 Balanced
Mg2+ 3 3 Balanced
Cl− 6 6 Balanced

The names of molecular compounds

need prefixes because several
different compounds can be formed
from the same two nonmetals.

Learning Goal: Given the formula

of a molecular compound, write its
correct name; given the name of a
molecular compound, write its
formula.

Molecular compounds form when

• atoms of two or more nonmetals share electrons and
form a covalent bond.
• valence electrons are shared by nonmetal atoms to
achieve stability.
A molecule is a discrete group of atoms in a definite
proportion.

Copyright © 2019, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Names and Formulas of Molecular
Compounds
When naming a molecular
compound, the
• first nonmetal in the
formula is named by its
element name.
• second nonmetal is named
using the first syllable of
the name followed by ide.
When a subscript indicates
two or more atoms of an
element, a prefix is shown in
front of its name.

Copyright © 2019, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Names and Formulas of Molecular
Compounds
Several compounds may be formed from the same two
nonmetals:
CO2 = carbon dioxide
CO = carbon monoxide
• The number of oxygen atoms present is indicated by the
prefix.
• When the vowels o and o or a and o appear together, the
first vowel is omitted.
NO = nitrogen monoxide

Name the molecular compound NCl3.

ANALYZE THE GIVEN NEED CONNECT

PROBLEM NCl3 name prefixes

STEP 1 Name the first nonmetal by its element name.

In NCl3, the first nonmetal (N) is nitrogen.

Name the molecular compound NCl3.

STEP 2 Name the second nonmetal by using the first

syllable of the element name followed by ide.
In NCl3, the second nonmetal (Cl) is chloride.

STEP 3 Add prefixes to indicate the number of atoms

(subscripts).

Because there is one nitrogen atom, no prefix is

needed. The subscript 3 for the Cl atoms is shown as the
prefix tri.

The name of NCl3 is nitrogen trichloride.

Name the molecular compound B2O3.

ANALYZE THE GIVEN NEED CONNECT

PROBLEM B2O3 name prefixes

STEP 1 Name the first nonmetal by its element name.

In B2O3, the first nonmetal (B) is boron.

STEP 2 Name the second nonmetal by using the first name

followed by ide.
The name of the second nonmetal (O) is oxide.

Name the molecular compound B2O3.

STEP 3 Add prefixes to indicate the number of

atoms (subscripts).
In B2O3, the first nonmetal (B) has the subscript of
2, which is shown as the prefix di. The subscript of 3
for the O atoms is shown as the prefix tri.
The name of B2O3 is diboron trioxide.

Copyright © 2019, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Writing Formulas from the Names of
Molecular Compounds
• In the name of a molecular compound, the names
of two nonmetals are given along with prefixes for
the number of atoms of each.
• To write the formula from the name, use the
symbol for each element and a subscript if a prefix
indicates two or more atoms.

Write the molecular formula for diphosphorus pentoxide.

Copyright © 2019, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Solution
Write the molecular formula for diphosphorus pentoxide.
ANALYZE THE GIVEN NEED CONNECT
PROBLEM diphosphorus formula subscripts
pentoxide from prefixes

STEP 1 Write the symbols in the order of the elements

in the name.
Name of Element Phosphorus Oxygen
Symbol of Element P O

STEP 2 Write any prefixes as subscripts. The prefix di

in diphosphorus indicates there are two phosphorus atoms.
The prefix penta in pentoxide indicates there are five
oxygen atoms. P2O5

A compound is usually
• ionic if the first element in the formula or the name is a
metal or the polyatomic ion NH4+.
K2O: K is a metal; the compound is ionic. potassium
oxide
• covalent if the first element in the formula is a
nonmetal.
N2O: N is a nonmetal; the compound is covalent.
dinitrogen oxide

Identify each compound as ionic or covalent and give its

correct name.
A. SO3

B. BaCl2

C. (NH4)3PO3

D. Cu2CO3

E. N2O4

Identify each compound as ionic or covalent and give its

correct name.
A. SO3 covalent—sulfur trioxide

B. BaCl2 ionic—barium chloride

C. (NH4)3PO3 ionic—ammonium phosphite

D. Cu2CO3 ionic—copper(I) carbonate

E. N2O4 covalent—dinitrogen tetroxide

Copyright © 2019, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
6.6 Lewis Structures for Molecules and
Polyatomic Ions
A molecule is
represented by a Lewis
structure in which the
valence electrons of all
the atoms are arranged
to give octets.

Learning Goal: Draw

the Lewis structures for
molecular compounds or
polyatomic ions.

A hydrogen molecule, H2,

• forms as the atoms move closer and the positive charge
of the nucleus attracts the electron of the other atom.
• has a shared pair of electrons, a covalent bond, to give a
noble gas arrangement of He to each H atom.
• forms when the molecule formed is more stable than the
two individual H atoms.

A covalent bond forms as H atoms move close together to

share electrons.

A molecule is represented by a Lewis structure in which the

valence electrons of all the atoms are arranged to give
octets.
• The shared electrons, or bonding pairs, are shown as
two dots or a single line between atoms.
• The nonbonding pairs, or lone pairs, are placed on the
outside of the atoms.

A molecule is represented by a Lewis structure in which the

valence electrons of all the atoms are arranged to give octets.
To draw the electron-dot formula for a fluorine molecule, F 2,
• we start with the electron-dot symbols for each fluorine atom.
• each fluorine atom shares one electron to form a covalent
bond, giving each fluorine an octet.

The elements hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine,

bromine, and iodine exist as diatomic molecules.

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Sharing Electrons Between
Atoms of Different Elements
The number of electrons a nonmetal atom shares and the
number of covalent bonds it forms are usually equal to the
number of electrons it needs to achieve a stable electron
configuration.

To draw the electron-dot formula for methane,

CH4,
• draw the Lewis symbols for carbon and
hydrogen.

• carbon needs four hydrogen atoms to have

an octet.
• two bonding electrons between carbon and
hydrogen can be drawn as a line.
• the central atom is the atom in the formula
with the least number of atoms.

Electron-dot formulas for

common molecules such as
methane, ammonia, and water
are shown in Table 6.14.

Draw the Lewis structure for PCl3, phosphorus trichloride,

which is used in the preparation of pesticides and flame
retardants.

Draw the Lewis structure for PCl3, phosphorus trichloride,

which is used in the preparation of pesticides and flame
retardants.
ANALYZE THE GIVEN NEED CONNECT
PROBLEM PCl3 Lewis structure total valence
electrons

STEP 1 Determine the arrangement of atoms. In PCl3, P

is the central atom; there is only one phosphorus atom in
the formula.

Draw the Lewis structure for PCl3, phosphorus trichloride, which

is used in the preparation of pesticides and flame retardants.

STEP 2 Determine the total number of valence

electrons. Use the group number to determine the number
of valence electrons for each element.

Draw the Lewis structure for PCl3, phosphorus trichloride,

which is used in the preparation of pesticides and flame
retardants.

STEP 3 Attach each bonded atom to the central atom

with a pair of electrons.
Each bonding pair can be represented with a single line.

Draw the Lewis structure for PCl3, phosphorus trichloride,

which is used in the preparation of pesticides and flame
retardants.

STEP 4 Use the remaining electrons to complete octets.

Six electrons (3 × 2 e−) are used to bond the
central P atom to three Cl atoms. Twenty valence
electrons are left.

A double bond
• occurs when atoms share two
pairs of electrons.
• forms when there are not enough
electrons to complete octets.
A triple bond
• occurs when atoms share three
pairs of electrons.
• forms when there are not enough
electrons to complete octets.

While the octet rule is useful, there

are exceptions.
• Hydrogen requires just two
electrons to form a noble gas
arrangement.
• Nonmetals P, S, Cl, Br, and I
can form compounds with 10 or
12 valence electrons.
• The S atom has an octet in
many compounds, but in SF6,
there are 12 valence electrons
or 6 bonds to the sulfur atom.

The electronegativity
values of representative
elements in Group 1A (1)
to Group 7A (17).

Learning Goal: Use

electronegativity to
determine the polarity of a
bond.

The electronegativity of an atom is its ability to attract the

shared electrons in a chemical bond. It
• increases from left to right going across a period on the
periodic table.
• decreases going down a group on the periodic table.
• is high for the nonmetals, with fluorine as the highest.
• is low for the metals.

The difference in
electronegativity of
bonding atoms can be
used to predict the
polarity of the bond.

In the H2 molecule,
electrons are shared
equally and the bond is
nonpolar. In the HCl
molecule, electrons are
shared unequally, and
the bond is polar.
Copyright © 2019, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
A nonpolar covalent bond occurs between nonmetals. It
• is an equal or almost equal sharing of electrons by the two
bonding atoms.
• has a very small electronegativity difference between atoms
(between 0.0 and 0.4).
Examples
Electronegativity
Atoms Difference Type of Bond
N-N 3.0 − 3.0 = 0.0 Nonpolar covalent
Cl-Br 3.0 − 2.8 = 0.2 Nonpolar covalent
H-Si 2.1 − 1.8 = 0.3 Nonpolar covalent

A polar covalent bond occurs between nonmetal atoms. It

• is an unequal sharing of electrons.
• has a moderate electronegativity difference (from 0.5 to 1.8).
Examples
Electronegativity
Atoms Difference Type of Bond
O-Cl 3.5 − 3.0 = 0.5Polar covalent
Cl-C 3.0 − 2.5 = 0.5Polar covalent
O-S 3.5 − 2.5 = 1.0Polar covalent

A polar covalent bond becomes more polar as the difference in

electronegativity increases. The separation of charges in a polar
bond is called a dipole.
The positive and negative ends of the dipole are located by using
• the lowercase Greek letter delta with a positive or a negative
charge.
• an arrow that points from the positive to the negative end of
the dipole.

An ionic bond
• occurs between metal and nonmetal ions.
• is a result of electron transfer.
• has a large electronegativity difference (greater than 1.8).
Examples
Electronegativity
Atoms Difference Type of Bond
Cl-K 3.0 – 0.8 = 2.2 Ionic
N-Na 3.0 – 0.9 = 2.1 Ionic

The difference in electronegativity values for two atoms

can be used to predict the type of chemical bond. If the
electronegativity difference is
• between 0 and 0.4, the bond is nonpolar covalent.
• between 0.5 and 1.8, the bond is polar covalent.
• greater than 1.8, the bond is ionic and the electrons are
considered transferred.
• between 1.8 and 2.0, can be either polar covalent or
ionic. It depends on the elements involved in the bond:
metal: non-metal – ionic; 2 non-metals- covalent

Use the electronegativity difference to identify the type of

bond (nonpolar covalent [NP], polar covalent [P], or ionic
[I]) between the following:
A. K—N
B. N—O
C. Cl—Cl
D. H—Cl

Use the electronegativity difference to identify the type of bond

(nonpolar covalent [NP], polar covalent [P], or ionic [I]) between
the following:
Difference Type of bond
A. K—N 2.2 ionic (I)
B. N—O 0.5 polar covalent (P)
C. Cl—Cl 0.0 nonpolar covalent (NP)
D. H—Cl 0.9 polar covalent (P)

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