Chapter Three
THE SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE
CYCLE
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
• After completing this chapter, you should
be able to:
• Identify the traditional SDLC
• Discuss approaches to system analysis and
design
The traditional SDLC
• Organizations use a standard set of steps, called a
systems development methodology, to develop and
support their information systems.
Like many processes, the development of information
systems often follows a life cycle.
For example, a commercial product, such as a Nike
sneaker or a Honda car, follows a life cycle: It is
created, tested, and introduced to the market. Its sales
increase, peak, and decline. Finally, the product is
removed from the market and is replaced by something
else.
Conti…
• The systems development life cycle (SDLC) is
a common methodology for systems
development in many organizations.
It marks the phases or steps of information
systems development: Someone has an idea for
an information system and what it should do.
The organization that will use the system
decides to devote the necessary resources to
acquiring it
Conti…
A careful study is done of how the organization
currently handles the work the system will
support.
Professionals develop a strategy for designing
the new system, which is then either built or
purchased.
Once complete, the system is installed in the
organization, and after proper training, the
users begin to incorporate the new system into
their daily work.
Conti…
• Every organization uses a slightly different
life-cycle model to model these steps, with
any where from three to almost twenty
identifiable phases. In this course, we
highlight four SDLC steps:
(1) planning and selection,
(2) analysis,
(3) design, and
(4) implementation and operation
The four steps of the systems
development life cycle
(SDLC)
Phase 1:
system
planning and
selection
Phase 4 :system
Phase 2:
implementation
and operation SDLC system
analysis
Phase 3:
system
design,
Conti…
Although any life cycle appears at first glance to
be a sequentially ordered set of phases, it actually
is not. The specific steps and their sequence are
meant to be adapted as required for a project.
For example, in any given SDLC phase, the
project can return to an earlier phase, if
necessary. Similarly, if a commercial product
does not perform well just after its introduction,
it may be temporarily removed from the market
and improved before being reintroduced.
Conti…
In the systems development life cycle, it is also
possible to complete some activities in one
phase in parallel with some activities of another
phase.
Sometimes the life cycle is iterative; that is,
phases are repeated as required until an
acceptable system is found. Some systems
analysts consider the life cycle to be a spiral,
constantly cycling through the phases at
different levels of detail.
Conti…
The circular nature of the life-cycle diagram in
Figure shown illustrates how the end of the useful
life of one system leads to the beginning of
another project that will replace the existing
system altogether.
However conceived, the systems development life
cycle used in an organization is an orderly set of
activities conducted and planned for each
development project. The skills required of a
systems analyst apply to all life-cycle models.
Conti…
Every medium-to-large corporation, will have its
own specific, detailed life-cycle or systems
development methodology in place. Even if a
particular methodology does not look like a
cycle, many of the SDLC steps are performed,
and SDLC techniques and tools are used.
As we describe this SDLC throughout the
course, it becomes clear that each phase has
specific outcomes and deliverables that feed
important information to other phases.
Conti…
• At the end of each phase (and sometimes
within phases for intermediate steps), a
systems development project reaches a
milestone. Then, as deliverables are
produced, they are often reviewed by
parties outside the project team, including
managers and executives.
Phase 1: Systems Planning and Selection
The first phase in the SDLC, systems planning and
selection, has two primary activities. First, someone
identifies the need for a new or enhanced system.
Information needs of the organization are examined,
and projects to meet these needs are identified. The
organization’s information system needs may result
from:
■ Requests to deal with problems in current procedures
■ The desire to perform additional tasks
■ The realization that information technology could be
used to capitalize on an existing opportunity
Conti…
The systems analyst prioritizes and translates the
needs into a written plan for the information systems
(IS) department, including a schedule for developing
new major systems. Requests for new systems spring
from users who need new or enhanced systems.
During the systems planning and selection phase, an
organization determines whether resources should
be devoted to the development or enhancement of
each information system under consideration
Conti…
A feasibility study is conducted before the second
phase of the SDLC to determine the economic and
organizational impact of the system.
The second task in the systems planning and
selection phase is to investigate the system and
determine the proposed system’s scope. The team of
systems analysts then produces a specific plan for the
proposed project for the team to follow. This baseline
project plan customizes the standardized SDLC and
specifies the time and resources needed for its
execution.
Phase 2: Systems Analysis
The second phase of the systems development life cycle is
systems analysis.
During this phase, the analyst thoroughly studies the
organization’s current procedures and the information systems
used to perform tasks such as general ledger, shipping, order
entry, machine scheduling, and payroll.
Analysis has several sub phases. The first sub phase involves
determining the requirements of the system. In this sub phase,
you and other analysts work with users to determine what the
users want from a proposed system.
This sub phase involves a careful study of any current systems,
manual and computerized, that might be replaced or enhanced
as part of this project.
Conti…
The output of the analysis phase is a
description of the alternative solution
recommended by the analysis team.
Once the recommendation is accepted by
the organization, you can make plans to
acquire any hardware and system software
necessary to build or operate the system as
proposed.
Phase 3: Systems Design
The third phase of the SDLC is called
systems design. During systems design,
analysts convert the description of the
recommended alternative solution into
logical and then physical system
specifications.
You must design all aspects of the system
from input and output screens to reports,
databases, and computer processes.
Conti…
Logical design is not tied to any specific
hardware and systems software platform.
Theoretically, the system you design could
be implemented on any hardware and
systems software.
Logical design concentrates on the business
aspects of the system - that is, how the
system will impact the functional units
within the organization.
Conti…
• In physical design, you turn the logical design
into physical, or technical, specifications
• For example, you must convert diagrams that
map the origin, flow, and processing of data in
a system into a structured systems design that
can then be broken down into smaller and
smaller units for conversion to instructions
written in a programming language.
Conti…
You design the various parts of the system to
perform the physical operations necessary to
facilitate data capture, processing, and information
output
During physical design, the analyst team decides
which programming languages the computer
instructions will be written in, which database
systems and file structures will be used for the data,
and which hardware platform, operating system, and
network environment the system will run under.
Conti…
These decisions finalize the hardware and
software plans initiated at the end of the
analysis phase. Now you can acquire any new
technology not already present in the
organization.
The final product of the design phase is the
physical system specifications, presented in a
form, such as a diagram or written report,
ready to be turned over to programmers and
other system builders for construction
Phase 4: Systems Implementation and Operation
The final phase of the SDLC is a two-step process:
systems implementation and operation.
During systems implementation and operation, you
turn system specifications into a working system that is
tested and then put into use.
Implementation includes coding, testing, and
installation. During coding, programmers write the
programs that make up the system. During testing,
programmers and analysts test individual programs
and the entire system in order to find and correct
errors.
Products of the SDLC Phases
Phase Products, Outputs, or Deliverables
Systems planning Priorities for systems and projects
and selection Architecture for data, networks,
hardware, and IS
management
Detailed work plan for selected project
Specification of system scope
System justification or business case
Systems analysis Description of current system
General recommendation on how to fix,
enhance,
or replace current system
Explanation of alternative systems and
justification for chosen alternative
Acquisition plan for new technology
Conti…
Systems design Detailed specifications of all system
elements
Systems Code
implementation Documentation
and operation Training procedures and support
capabilities
New versions or releases of software
with
associated updates to documentation,
training, and support
Alternative Approaches to Development
Prototyping, computer-aided software
engineering (CASE) tools, joint application
design (JAD), rapid application
development (RAD), participatory design
(PD), and the use of Agile Methodologies
represent different approaches that
streamline and improve the systems analysis
and design process from different
perspectives.
Prototyping
Designing and building a scaled-down but working
version of a desired system is known as prototyping.
Computer-Aided Software Engineering (CASE)
Tools
Computer-aided software engineering (CASE)
refers to automated software tools used by systems
analysts to develop information systems.
These tools can be used to automate or support
activities throughout the systems development
process with the objective of increasing productivity
and improving the overall quality of systems.
Joint Application Design
In the late 1970s, systems development personnel at
IBM developed a new process for collecting
information system requirements and reviewing
system designs. The process is called joint application
design (JAD).
The idea behind JAD is to structure the
requirements determination phase of analysis and
the reviews that occur as part of the design. Users,
managers, and systems developers are brought
together for a series of intensive structured meetings
run by a JAD session leader.
Conti…
By gathering the people directly affected by
an IS in one room at the same time to work
together to agree on system requirements
and design details, time and organizational
resources are better managed.
Group members are more likely to develop
a shared understanding of what the IS is
supposed to do. JAD has become common
in certain industries, such as insurance
Rapid Application Development
Prototyping, CASE, and JAD are key tools that
support rapid application development (RAD).
The fundamental principle of any RAD
methodology is to delay producing detailed system
design documents until after user requirements
are clear.
The prototype serves as the working description
of needs. RAD involves gaining user acceptance of
the interface and developing key system
capabilities as quickly as possible
Conti…
RAD is widely used by consulting firms. It is
also used as an in-house methodology by firms
such as the Boeing Company.
RAD sacrifices computer efficiency for gains in
human efficiency in rapidly building and
rebuilding working systems. On the other hand,
RAD methodologies can overlook important
systems development principles, which may
result in problems with systems developed this
way
Participatory Design
Developed in northern Europe, participatory design
(PD) represents a viable alternative approach to the
SDLC. One of the best-known companies that has used
this approach is Statoil, the Norwegian oil company.
PD emphasizes the role of the user much more than do
traditional North American techniques such as
structured analysis and structured design.
In some cases, PD may involve the entire user
community in the development process. Each user has
an equal voice in determining system requirements and
in approving system design.
Agile Methodologies
Agile Methodologies share three key
principles:
A focus on adaptive rather than predictive
methodologies,
A focus on people rather than roles, and
A self-adaptive process.
Conti…
Adopting an adaptive rather than predictive methodology
refers to the observation that engineering-based
methodologies work best when the process and product
are predictive.
Software tends not to be as predictive as, say, a bridge,
especially in today’s turbulent business environment.
More adaptive methodologies are needed, then, and the
Agile Methodologies are based on the ability to adapt
quickly.
The focus on people rather than roles is also a criticism of
engineering-based techniques, where people became
interchangeable.
Conti…
An Agile approach views people as talented
individuals, not people filling roles, each of whom has
unique talents to bring to a development project.
Finally, Agile Methodologies promote a self-adaptive
software development process. As the methodologies
are applied, they should also be adapted by a
particular development team working on a particular
project in a particular context.
No single monolithic methodology effectively fits all
developers on all projects at all times.
END OF
CHAPTER 3