Advanced Algorithms Analysis

and Design

By

Dr. Nazir Ahmad Zafar

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms

 Lecture No 2

Mathematical Tools for Design and

Analysis of Algorithms

(Fundamentals of Algorithms)

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms

 Review of Lecture No 1

• Introduction to Algorithms
• Designing Techniques
• Algorithm is a Technology
• Model of Computation
• Even we have supercomputers, it requires algorithm
• Algorithms makes difference in users and modeler
• Some of the applications areas of algorithms
 Management and manipulation of data
 Electronic commerce
 Manufacturing and other commercial settings
 Shortest paths etc.
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms
 Today Covered

A Sequence of Mathematical Tools

• Sets
• Sequences
• Order pairs
• Cross Product
• Relation
• Functions
• Operators over above structures
• Conclusion
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms
 Set

• A set is well defined collection of objects, which are

• unordered
• distinct
• same type
• with common properties
Notation:
• Elements of set are listed between a pair of curly braces
S1 = {R, R, R, B, G} = {R, B, G} = {B, G, R}
Empty Set
S3 = { } = , has not elements, called empty set

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms

 Representation of Sets
• Three ways to represent a set
• Descriptive Form
• Tabular form
• Set Builder Form (Set Comprehension)
Example
• Descriptive Form
S = set of all prime numbers
• Tabular form
{2, 3, 5, . . .}
• Set Builder Form
{x : N| ( i  {2, 3, . . ., x-1}   (i / x))  x}
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms
 Set Comprehension

Some More Examples

{x : s | p  x} = {x : s | p} = all x in s that satisfy p

1. {x : Z | x2 = x  x} = {0, 1}
2. {x : N | x  0 mod 2  x} = {0, 2, 4, . . . }
3. {x : N | x  1 mod 2  x} = {1, 3, 5, . . . }
4. {x : Z | x ≥ 0  x ≤ 6  x} = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
5. {x : Z | x ≥ 0  x ≤ 6  x2} = {0, 1, 4, . . ., 25,
36}
6. {x : N | x  1 mod 2  x3} = {1, 27, 125, . . . }

Dr. Nazir A. Zafar

 All collections are not sets

• The prime numbers

Primes == {2, 3, 5, 7, . . . }
• The four oceans of the world
Oceans == {Atlantic, Arctic, Indian, Pacific}
• The passwords that may be generated using eight
lower-case letters, when repetition is allowed
• Hard working students in MSCS class session 2007-09
at Virtual University
• Intelligent students in your class
• Kind teachers at VU

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms

 Operators Over Sets

Membership Operator
• If an element e is a member of set S then it is denoted as
e  S and read e is in S. Let S is sub-collection of X

X = a set
SX

Now
 : X x P X Bool
 (x, S) = = 1 if x is in S
0 if x is not in S

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms

 Operators Over Sets

Subset:
If each element of A is also in B, then A is said to be
a subset of B, A  B and B is superset of A, B  A.

Let X = a universal set, A  X, B  X, Now

 : X x X  Bool
 (A, B) = = 1, if  x : X, x  A  x  B
0 if  x : X, x  A  x  B

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms

 Operators Over Sets

Intersection
 : X x X  X
 (A, B) = = {x : X | x  A and x  B  x}
Union
 : X x X  X
 (A, B) = = {x : X | x  A or x  B  x}
Set Difference
\ : X x X  X
\ (A, B) = = {x : X | x  A but x  B  x}

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms

 Cardinality and Power Set of a given Set

• A set, S, is finite if there is an integer n such that the

elements of S can be placed in a one-to-one
correspondence with {1, 2, 3, …, n}, and we say that
cardinality is n. We write as: |S| = n
Power Set
• How many distinct subsets does a finite set on n
elements have? There are 2n subsets.
• How many distinct subsets of cardinality k does a
finite set of n elements have?
n  n n!
C (n, k ) Ck   
There are  k  (n  k )!k!
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms
 Partitioning of a set

A partition of a set A is a set of non-empty subsets of

A such that every element x in A exactly belong to
one of these subsets.
Equivalently, set P of subsets of A, is a partition of A
1. If no element of P is empty
2. The union of the elements of P is equal to A. We say
the elements of P cover A.
3. The intersection of any two elements of P is empty.
That means the elements of P are pair wise disjoints

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms

 Mathematical Way of Defining Partitioning

A partition P of a set A is a collection {A1, A2, . . ., An}

such that following are satisfied
1.  Ai  P, Ai  ,
2. Ai  Aj = ,  i, j  {1, 2, . . ., n} and i  j
3. A = A1  A2  . . . An
Example: Partitioning of Z Modulo 4
{x : Z | x  0 mod 4} = {. . .-8, -4, 0, 4, 8, . . . } = [0]
{x : Z | x  1 mod 4} = {. . .-7, -3, 1, 5, 9, . . . } = [1]
{x : Z | x  2 mod 4} = {. . .-6, -2, 2, 6, 10, . . . } = [ 2]
{x : Z | x  3 mod 4} = {. . .-5, -1, 3, 7, 11, . . . } = [3]
{x : Z | x  4 mod 4} = {. . .,-8, -4, 0, 4, 8, . . . } = [4]
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms
 Sequence

• It is sometimes necessary to record the order in

which objects are arranged, e.g.,
• Data may be indexed by an ordered collection
of keys
• Messages may be stored in order of arrival
• Tasks may be performed in order of importance.
• Names can be sorted in order of alphabets etc.
Definition
• A group of elements in a specified order is called a
sequence.
• A sequence can have repeated elements.

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms

 Sequence

• Notation: Sequence is defined by listing elements in

order, enclosed in parentheses. e.g.
S = (a, b, c), T = (b, c, a), U = (a, a, b, c)
• Sequence is a set
S = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c)} = {(3, c), (2, b), (1, a)}

• Permutation: If all elements of a finite sequence are

distinct, that sequence is said to be a permutation of
the finite set consisting of the same elements.
• No. of Permutations: If a set has n elements, then
there are n! distinct permutations over it.
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms
 Operators over Sequences

• Operators are for manipulations

Concatenation
• (a, b, c )  ( d, a ) = ( a, b, c, d, a )
Other operators
• Extraction of information: ( a, b, c, d, a )(2) = b
• Filter Operator: {a, d}  ( a, b, c, d, a ) = (a, d, a)
Note:
• We can think how resulting theory of sequences
falls within our existing theory of sets
• And how operators in set theory can be used in
case of sequences
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms
 Tuples and Cross Product

• A tuple is a finite sequence.

• Ordered pair (x, y), triple (x, y, z), quintuple
• A k-tuple is a tuple of k elements.
Construction to ordered pairs
• The cross product of two sets, say A and B, is
A  B = {(x, y) | x  A, y  B}
| A  B | = |A| |B|

• Some times, A and B are of same set, e.g.,

Z  Z, where Z denotes set of Integers

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms

 Binary Relations

Definition: If X and Y are two non-empty sets, then

X  Y = {(x, y) | x X and y  Y}
Example: If X = {a, b}, Y = {0,1} Then
X  Y = {(a, 0), (a, 1), (b, 0), (b, 1)}

Definition: A subset of X  Y is a relation over X  Y

Example: Compute all relations over X  Y, where
X = {a, b}, Y = {0,1}
R1 = , R2 = {(a, 0)}, R3 = {(a, 1)}
R4 = {(b, 0)}, R5 = {(b, 1)}, R6 = {(a, 0), (b, 0)}, . . .
There will be 24 = 16 number of relations
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms
 Binary Relations

Definition: XY == (X  Y)

Example: If X = {a, b}, Y = {0,1} Then

X  Y = {(a, 0), (a, 1), (b, 0), (b, 1)} and
X  Y = {R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, R10,
R11, R12, R13, R14, R15, R16}

Lemma 1: if #X = m, #Y = n then
# (X  Y) = 2m  n

Algorithm: All binary relations, cardinality

of it
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms
 Equivalence Relation

A relation R  X  X, is
• Reflexive:
(x, x)  R,  x  X
• Symmetric:
(x, y)  R  (y, x)  R,  x, y  X
• Transitive:
(x, y)  R  (y, z)  R  (x, z)  R
• Equivalence:
If reflexive, symmetric and transitive

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms

 Applications : Order Pairs in Terms of String
Definition
• A relation R over X, Y, Z is some subset of X x Y x Z and so on
Example 1
• If  = {0, 1}, then construct set of all strings of length 2 and 3
• Set of length 2 =  x  = {0,1} x {0,1} = {(0,0), (0,1), (1,0),
(1,1)} = {00, 01, 10, 11}
• Set of length 3 =  x  x  = {0, 1} x {0, 1} x {0,1}
= {(0,0,0), (0,0,1), (0,1,0), (0,1,1), (1,0,0), (1,0,1), (1,1,0), (1,1,1)}
= {000, 010, 100, 110, 001, 011, 101, 111}
Example 2
• If  = {0, 1}, then construct set of all strings of length ≤ 3
• Construction = {}     x    x  x 
Similarly we can construct collection of all sets of length n

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms

 Partial Function

Definition: a partial function is a relation that

maps each element of X to at most one element
of Y. XY denotes the set of all partial functions.
X  Y == { f | f  X  Y and
(x, y1)  f  (x, y2)  f  y1 = y2 ,  x  X, y1, y2  Y}

X f
b 1
Y

c 2

d 3

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms

 Function

Definition: if each element of X is related to

unique element of Y then partial function is a
total function denoted by X  Y.
X  Y == { f | f  XY and dom f = X}

X f
b 1
Y

c 2

d 3

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms

 Is Algorithm a Function?

Not good algorithms

X Input1 f output1
Y
Input2 output2

Input3 output3
... ...
Inputn outputn

X Input1 f output1
Y
Input2 output2

... ...
Inputn outputn

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms

 Conclusion

• We started with sets and built other structures e.g.

• Sequences
• Relations
• Functions, etc.
• We discussed operators over above structures
• All these tools are fundaments of mathematics
• Sets play key role in algorithms design and analysis
• Finally proving correctness of algorithms, we
required logic.
• Our next lecture will be on proving techniques

Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms