Introduction to

Computers
 What Is Computer?
The word computer comes from the word “compute”, which means, “to calculate”. A

computer is an electronic device that can perform arithmetic operations at high speed
and it can process data, pictures, sound and graphics. It can solve highly complicated
problems quickly and accurately.
A computer is also called a data processor because it can store, process, and retrieve

data whenever desired.

Computer receives input, stores or processes the input as per user instructions and

provides output in desired format.

 Classification of Computer
A Computer can be classified on the basis of various categories namely-
 Based on Purpose
 General Purpose Computer
 Special Purpose Computer

 Based on Technology used

 Analog Computer
 Digital Computer
 Hybrid Computer

 Based on Size and Capacity

 Micro Computer
 Mini Computer
 Super Computer
 Based on Purpose
 General Purpose-Most computers in use today are General-Purpose computers . Simply by

using a general purpose computer and different software, various tasks can be accomplished,
including writing and editing (word processing), manipulating facts in a data base, tracking
manufacturing inventory, making scientific calculations, or even controlling organization’s
security system, electricity consumption, and building temperature.
 Special Purpose- These are designed to be task specific and most of the times their job is to

solve one particular problem. They are also known as dedicated computers, because they are
dedicated to perform a single task over and over again. Such a computer system would be useful
in playing graphic intensive Video Games, traffic lights control system, navigational system in
an aircraft, weather forecasting, satellite launch / tracking, oil exploration, and in automotive
industries, keeping time in a digital watch, or Robot helicopter. As these computers have to
perform only one task, therefore, they are fast in processing. A drawback of this specialization,
however, is the computer’s lack of versatility. It cannot be used to perform other operations.
 Based on Size and Capacity
 Micro Computer- Micro Computer is a computer whose CPU (Central
Processing Unit) is a microprocessor. All the components of a
microprocessor are on a single integrated circuit chip. Micro computer can
be categorized as the desktop, programmable and workstation.
 Mini Computer- These are faster than micro computers. Basically these
computers are mainly multi-user systems, where many users work on the
systems. Generally these types of computers have larger memories and
greater storage capacity.
 Supercomputer-Super Computers are the fastest computer in current era.
The processing capabilities of super computer lies in the range of GIPS2,
word length 64-128 or may be in 256 or so. The memory capacity of super
computer is in some gigabytes or in terabytes.
 Based on technology
 Analog Computer-An Analog computer is a computer which uses
continuously changeable entities like mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, etc.
They do not use discrete values but use continuous values. Thus these
computers work on an analog signal. Also, these signals are the continuous
signals with a time-varying feature of the [Link] computers are in
use for some specific applications, like the flight computer in aircraft, ships,
submarines, and some appliances in our daily life such as refrigerator,
speedometer, etc.
 Digital Computer-The digital computer is a digital system that performs
various computational tasks. The word digital implies that the information
in the computer is represented by variables that take a limited number of
discrete values. These values are processed internally by components that
can maintain a limited number of discrete [Link] decimal digits 0, 1,
2, ..., 9, for example, provide 10 discrete values.
 Block diagram of Digital computer
 Block diagram of a computer gives you the pictorial representation of a computer that how it works inside.
Or you can say that, in computers block diagram, you will see how computer works from feeding the data
to getting the result.
 Working of Digital Computer
The data is entered through input devices such as the
keyboard, mouse, etc. This set of instruction is
processed by the CPU after getting the input by the
user, and then the computer system produces the
output. The computer can show the output with the
help of output devices to the user, such as monitor,
printer, etc.
Components of Digital Computer
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The computer system is nothing without the Central processing Unit. So, it is also known as the brain of
computer. The CPU is an electronic hardware device which can perform different types of operations such as
arithmetic and logical operation.
Components of Digital Computer
The CPU contains
the arithmetic unit, two parts:
logical theand
unit, arithmetic logicwhich
control unit unit and
are control unit. We have discussed briefly
given below:

[Link] Unit

The control unit (CU) controls all the activities or operations which are performed inside the
computer system. It receives instructions or information directly from the main memory of the
computer.

When the control unit receives an instruction set or information, it converts the instruction set to
control signals then; these signals are sent to the central processor for further processing. The
control unit understands which operation to execute, accurately, and in which order.

2. Arithmetic and Logical Unit

The arithmetic and logical unit is the combinational digital electronic circuit that can perform
arithmetic operations on integer binary numbers. It presents the arithmetic and logical operation.
The outputs of ALU will change asynchronously in response to the input. The basic arithmetic
and bitwise logic functions are supported by ALU.
Components of Digital Computer
2. Storage Unit
•The information or set of guidelines are stored in the storage unit of the computer system. The storage unit provides the space
to store the data or instruction of processed data. The information or data is saved or hold in computer memory or storage
device. The data storage is the core function and fundamental of the computer components.

•There are mainly two types of storage Unit-

i) Primary Storage
ii) Secondary Storage

i) Primary memory is the main memory of computer system. The instructions that have to be currently executed is copied to
the primary memory because CPU can directly access the data from primary memory. Accessing data from primary memory
is faster as it is an internal memory and processor accesses data from primary memory using data bus.
Primary memory
(Read Only can be divided into two types of memory that are RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM
Memory).

 RAM is both read and write memory. The data which has to be currently processed is kept in RAM
which can be quickly accessed by the CPU. RAM is volatile and loses data if the power is switched off.

RAM can be static or dynamic.
ROM is a read only memory; its content can not be altered. It has the instructions
that are used when the system is booted up. ROM is a non-volatile memory i.e. it retains its content even if
the power is switched off. The types of ROM are PROM, EPROM and EEPROM.

ii) Secondary storage are also called as permanent storage unit as when the data store in this memory are stored permanently
user can recall the data whenever they need. The data remains in this memory even when there is a power failure or
shutdown, they are much more cheaper then primary memory. The Example of Secondary Storage are Hard disk and Zip
drives.
Components of Digital Computer
3. Input Devices

The user provides the set of instruction or information to the

computer system with the help of input devices such as the
keyboard, mouse, scanner, etc.

4. Output Devices

The output devices produce or generate the desired result

according to our input, such as a printer, monitor, etc. These
devices convert the data into a human-readable form from binary
code.
Digital Computer
 Hardware and Software
Hardware-The term hardware refers to mechanical device that makes up computer.
Computer hardware consists of interconnected electronic devices that we can use to
control computer’s operation, input and output. Examples of hardware are CPU,
keyboard, mouse, hard disk, etc.
Software
A set of instructions that drives computer to do stipulated tasks is called a
program. Software instructions are programmed in a computer
language, translated into machine language, and executed by computer.
Software can be categorized into two types
[Link] software
[Link] software
 System Software-System software operates directly on hardware
devices of computer. It provides a platform to run an application. It
provides and supports user functionality. Examples of system software
include operating systems such as Windows, Linux, Unix, etc.
 Application Software-An application software is designed for benefit of
users to perform one or more tasks. Examples of application software
include Microsoft Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Oracle, etc.
 Operating System
 An Operating system (OS) is a system software which acts as an interface between the end
user and computer hardware. Every computer must have at least one OS to run other programs.
An applications like Chrome, MS Word, Games, etc needs some environment in which it will
run and perform its task.
 The OS helps you to communicate with the computer without knowing how to speak the
computer's language. It is not possible for the user to use any computer or mobile device
without having an operating system.
Operating System as a Resource Manager
•Internally an Operating System acts as a resource
manager of the computer system such as processor,
memory, files, and I/O device.

•In this role, the operating system keeps track of the

status of each resource, and decides who gets a
resource, for how long and when.
 Functions of Operating system
 Process management:- Process management helps OS to create and delete
processes. It also provides mechanisms for synchronization and
communication among processes.
 Memory management:- Memory management module performs the task
of allocation and de-allocation of memory space to programs in need of this
resources.
 File management:- It manages all the file-related activities such as
organization storage, retrieval, naming, sharing, and protection of files.
 Device Management: Device management keeps tracks of all devices. This
module also responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller. It also
performs the task of allocation and de-allocation of the devices.
 I/O System Management: One of the main objects of any OS is to hide the
peculiarities of that hardware devices from the user.
 Cont..
Security:- Security module protects the data and
information of a computer system against malware threat
and authorized access.
Networking: A distributed system is a group of processors
which do not share memory, hardware devices, or a clock.
The processors communicate with one another through the
network.
Communication management: Coordination and
assignment of compilers, interpreters, and another software
resource of the various users of the computer systems.
 Types of Operating System
Batch Operating System
Multitasking/Time Sharing OS
Multiprocessing OS
Real Time OS
Distributed OS
Network OS
 Types of Operating System
Batch Operating System
 Some computer processes are very lengthy and time-consuming. To speed the same
process, a job with a similar type of needs are batched together and run as a group.
 The user of a batch operating system never directly interacts with the computer. In this
type of OS, every user prepares his or her job on an offline device like a punch card and
submit it to the computer operator.

Multi-Tasking/Time-sharing Operating systems

 Time-sharing operating system enables people located at a different terminal(shell) to
use a single computer system at the same time. The processor time (CPU) which is
shared among multiple users is termed as time sharing.

Real time OS
 A real time operating system time interval to process and respond to inputs is very
small. Examples: Military Software Systems, Space Software Systems.
 Types of Operating System

Distributed Operating System

Distributed systems use many processors located in
different machines to provide very fast computation to
its users.

Network Operating System

Network Operating System runs on a server. It provides
the capability to serve to manage data, user, groups,
security, application, and other networking functions.
Types of Computer Language
Computer Language is used to communicate with the
computers. It is different from the language that we
usually use to communicate.
Computer system is made up off electronic circuits that
is either ON or OFF. It is in the Form of 0 and 1,which is
called Binary language or machine language.
Computer Language is divided into 2 types.
High Level Language
Low level language.
 Low Level Language
Assembly language and binary /machine language are
considered to be low level language.
LLL is in the form of 0 and 1,the actual language that
computer/machine understands.
Assembly language is one step ahead of low level
language. It allows for the symbolic names instead of
just numbers like 0 and [Link] this we use English like
words, which is easy to understand then machine
language.
 Low Level Language
Advantage of LLL:-
1. As it is directly understandable by the machine,
processing speed is high.
2. No translator is required.
3. It occupies less memory space.
Disadvantages of LLL:-
4. LLL is difficult to read and write.
2. Difficult to debug.
3. It is not portable.
4. It is platform dependent.
 High Level Language
HLL is more closer to the human language. HLL has
its own syntax and Rules which are strictly followed.
High level languages are needed to be convert into
machine language.
Now a days most of the languages we are using, are
High level languages like C, C++, JAVA, Python etc.
 High Level Language
Advantages of HLL 
• HLL is easy to read and write.
• HLL is easy to debug.
• HLL is machine independent.
• HLL is platform independent.
Disadvantages of HLL
• Processing speed is slow, as it needs translators.
• It occupies more memory space.
 Translators

A program written in high-level language is called as source

code. To convert the source code into machine code,
translators are needed.
A translator takes a program written in source language as
input and converts it into a program in target language as
output.
It also detects and reports the error during translation.
There are three types of translators.
1. Assembler
2. Compiler
3. Interpreter
 Compiler
Compiler is a translator which is used to convert programs in
high-level language to low-level language. It translates the
entire program and also reports the errors in source program
encountered during the translation.
 Interpreter
 Interpreter is a translator which is used to convert programs in high-level
language to low-level language. Interpreter translates line by line and
reports the error once it encountered during the translation process.
 It directly executes the operations specified in the source program when the
input is given by the user.
 It gives better error diagnostics than a compiler.
Difference between Compiler and Interpreter
Compiler
• Performs the translation of a program as a whole.
• Execution is faster.
• Requires more memory as linking is needed for the generated intermediate
object code.
• Debugging is hard as the error messages are generated after scanning the entire
program only.
• Programming languages like C, C++ uses compilers.
Interpreter
• Performs statement by statement translation.
• Execution is slower.
• Memory usage is efficient as no intermediate object code is generated.
• It stops translation when the first error is met. Hence, debugging is easy.
• Programming languages like Python, BASIC, and Ruby uses interpreters.
 Linker
For a code to run we need to include a header file or a file saved

from the library which are pre-defined if they are not included in the
beginning of the program then after execution the compiler will
generate errors, and the code will not work.
Linker is a program that holds one or more object files which is

created by compiler, combines them into one executable file.

Linking is implemented at both time,load time and compile time.
Compile time is when high level language is turns to machine code
and load time is when the code is loaded into the memory by loader.
 Loader
 Loader is a program that loads machine codes of a program into the system memory.
 It is part of the OS of the computer that is responsible for loading the program. It is the bare
beginning of the execution of a program.
 Loading a program involves reading the contents of executable file into memory. Only after
the program is loaded the operating system starts the program by passing control to the loaded
program code.
 All the OS that support loading have loader and many have loaders permanently in their
memory
 Problem Solving Approach
1. Algorithm-
To write a logical step-by-step method to solve the problem is

called algorithm, in other words, an algorithm is a procedure

for solving problems.
 In order to solve a mathematical or computer problem, this is

the first step of the procedure. An algorithm includes

calculations, reasoning and data processing. Algorithms can
be presented by natural languages.
 Algorithm
Characteristics of an Algorithm-
1. Input- Every algorithm must have zero or
more input.
2. Output- Every algorithm must produce at
least one output.
3. Definiteness- An algorithm must be
unambiguous.
4. Effectiveness- Every algorithm must be
clear and precise.
5. Finiteness- Each algorithm must terminate
within finite number of steps.
 Example of Algorithm
Write an algorithm to convert temperature from
Fahrenheit to Celsius..

Step 1: Read temperature in Fahrenheit

Step 2: Calculate temperature with formula

C=5/9*(F-32)

 Step 3: Print C
 Problem Solving Approach
2. Flowchart
A flowchart is a schematic representation of an algorithm or a

stepwise process, showing the steps as boxes of various kinds,

and their order by connecting these with arrows.
Flowcharts are used in designing or documenting a process or

program.
 Symbols used in flowchart
 Flowcharts are usually drawn using some standard symbols; however, some special symbols
can also be developed when required. Some standard symbols, which are frequently required
for flowcharting many computer programs .
Example of Flowchart
Progarmming
Basics
 Structure of C Program
A C program is divided into different sections. There

are six main sections to a basic c program.

The six sections are-

 Documentation
 Link
 Definition
 Global Declarations
 Main functions
 Subprograms
Structure of a C program
 Structure of a C program
Documentation Section
The documentation section is the part of the program where the programmer gives the details
associated with the program. He usually gives the name of the program, the details of the author and
other details like the time of coding and description. It gives anyone reading the code the overview of
the code.

Link Section
This part of the code is used to declare all the header files that will be used in the program. This leads
to the compiler being told to link the header files to the system libraries.

Definition Section
In this section, we define different constants. The keyword define is used in this part.

Global Declaration Section

This part of the code is the part where the global variables are declared. All the global variable used
are declared in this part. The user-defined functions are also declared in this part of the code.

Main Function Section

Every C-programs needs to have the main function. Each main function contains 2 parts. A
declaration
declared. Thepart and an part
execution Execution
begins part. the
with Thecurly
declaration
bracketspart
and is thewith
ends partthe
where
curlyall the bracket.
close variablesBoth
are
the declaration and execution part are inside the curly braces.
Sub Program Section
All the user-defined functions are defined in this section of the program.
 Errors in C
Error is an illegal operation performed by the user which results in abnormal working of the program.
Programming errors often remain undetected until the program is compiled or executed. Some of the errors inhibit the program
from getting compiled or executed. Thus errors should be removed before compiling and executing. The most common errors
can be broadly classified as follows.

1. Syntax errors: Errors that occur when you violate the rules of writing C/C++ syntax are known as syntax errors. This compiler
error indicates something that must be fixed before the code can be compiled. All these errors are detected by compiler and thus
are known as compile-time errors.
Most frequent syntax errors are:

 Missing Parenthesis (})

 Printing the value of variable without declaring it
 Missing semicolon like this:
 Errors in C
[Link]-time Errors : Errors which occur during program execution(run-time) after
successful compilation are called run-time errors. One of the most common run-
time error is division by zero also known as Division error. These types of error are
hard to find as the compiler doesn’t point to the line at which the error occurs.
 Errors in C
3. Linker Errors: These error occurs when after compilation we link the different object files
with main’s object using Ctrl+F9key(RUN). These are errors generated when the executable of
the program cannot be generated. This may be due to wrong function prototyping, incorrect
header files. One of the most common linker error is writing Main() instead of main().

4. Logical Errors :On compilation and execution of a program, desired output is not obtained
when certain input values are given. These types of errors which provide incorrect output but
appears to be error free are called logical errors. These are one of the most common errors done
by beginners of programming. These errors solely depend on the logical thinking of the
programmer and are easy to detect if we follow the line of execution and determine why the
program takes that path of execution.
 Errors in C
5. Semantic errors : This error occurs when the statements
written in the program are not meaningful to the
compiler.
 Object and Executable code
Source Code
Source code is the C program that you write in your editor and save with a ‘ .C ‘ extension.
Which is un-compiled (when written for the first time or whenever a change is made in it and
saved).

Object Code
Object code is the output of a compiler after it processes the source code. The object code is
usually a machine code, also called a machine language, which can be understood directly by a
specific type of CPU (central processing unit), such as x86 (i.e., Intel- compatible) or PowerPC.
However, some compilers are designed to convert source code into anassembly language or some
other another programming language. An assembly language is a human-readable notation using
the mnemonics (mnemonicis a symbolic name for a single executable machine language
instruction called an opcode) in the ISA ( Instruction Set Architecture) of that particular CPU .

Executable Code
Executable (also called the Binary) is the output of a linker after it processes the object
code. A machine code file can be immediately executable (i.e., runnable as a program), or it might
require linking with other object code files (e.g. libraries) to produce a complete executable
program.
 Components of C language
There are five main component of C language :-

[Link] character set: Any alphabet ,digit or special symbol ,used to represent information is
denoted by character. The character in C are grouped into four categories:-
i) Letters A...Z and a...z
ii) Digits 0,1,2,.....9
iii) Special Symbol ~ ` ! @ # $ % ^ & * () . <> ? / " : ; { }[ ].
iv) White Space,blank space, Carriage return, form feed, newline, horizontal tab.
C uses the uppercase letter A to Z, the lowercase letters a to z, the digits 0 to 9, and certain special
characters as building blocks to form basic program elements ( e.g., constants, variables,
operators, expressions, etc.
Some of the special characters are listed below:
+ - * ~ % / & ( ) { } [ ] ? " <> ! ; :
Most versions of the language also allow certain other characters, such as @ and $, to be
included within strings and comments.
C uses certain combinations of these characters, such as \b,\n and \t, to represent special
conditions such as backspace, new line, and horizontal tab, respectively
These character combinations are known as escape sequences.
 Components of C language
[Link] data types: The power of the programming language depends, among other thing, on the
range of different types of data it can handle. We can use several basic types of data values such
as character, integer, float, double.

[Link]: A constant is a fix value that doesn't change while program [Link]
basically 2 types of constants

i) Primary constants:- Integer constants, Real constants, Character constaints.

ii) Secondary constants:- Array, Structure, Union, Pointer, etc.

Character constants are enclosed between single quotes. e.g. 'a' & '%' etc.

4. Variable: A variable is an entity whose value can change during program execution. Variable
names are names given to locations in memory. These locations can contain integer, real or
character constants.
 Components of C language
Rules for Constructing Variable Names

i)A variable name is any combination of 1 to 31 alphabets, digits or underscores. Some compilers allow variable

names whose length could be up to 247 characters. Do not create unnecessarily long variable names.

ii) The first character in the variable name must be an alphabet or underscore.

iii) No commas or blanks are allowed within a variable name.

iv) No special symbol other than an underscore can be used in a variable name.

5. Keywords: Keywords are the words whose meaning has already been explained to the C compiler. The

keywords cannot be used as variable names because if we do so we are trying to assign a new meaning to the

keyword, which is not allowed by the computer. The keywords are also called reserved words. There are 32

keywords eg. auto, double, int, struct, break, else, long, switch, case, enum, register, typedef, char, extern, return,

union, const, float, short, unsigned, continue, for, signed, void, default, goto, sizeof, volatile, do, if, static, while.
 Standard I/O in C
C Output

In C programming, printf() is one of the main output function. The function sends formatted output to

the screen. For example,

1. #include<stdio.h>

2. int main()

3. {

4. // Displays the string inside quotations

5. printf("C Programming");

6. return0;

7. }
 Standard I/O in C
C Input


In C programming, scanf() is one of the commonly used function to take input from the user. The scanf() function reads
formatted input from the standard input such as keyboards.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. inttestInteger;
5. printf("Enter an integer: ");
6. scanf("%d",&testInteger);
7. printf("Number = %d",testInteger);
8. return0;
9. }
 Data Types in C
Each variable in C has an associated data type. Each data type requires different amounts of memory and has

some specific operations which can be performed over it.

Following are the examples of data types used in C:

 char: The most basic data type in C. It stores a single character and requires a single byte of memory in

almost all compilers.

 int: As the name suggests, an int variable is used to store an integer.

 float: It is used to store decimal numbers (numbers with floating point value) with single precision.
 double: It is used to store decimal numbers (numbers with floating point value) with double precision.

Different data types also have different ranges up to which they can store numbers. These ranges may vary from

compiler to compiler. Below is list of ranges along with the memory requirement and format specifiers on 32 bit

gcc compiler.
Data Types in C
 Storage Class in C
 Storage Classes are used to describe the features of a variable/function. These
features basically include the scope, visibility and life-time which help us to trace
the existence of a particular variable during the runtime of a program.
 C language uses 4 storage classes-
 Auto Storage class
 This is the default storage class for all the variables declared inside a function or a

block. Hence, the keyword auto is rarely used while writing programs in C language.

 Auto variables can be only accessed within the block/function they have been

declared and not outside them (which defines their scope). Of course, these can be

accessed within nested blocks within the parent block/function in which the auto

variable was declared.

 However, they can be accessed outside their scope as well using the concept of

pointers given here by pointing to the very exact memory location where the

variables resides.

 They are assigned a garbage value by default whenever they are declared.
 Extern Storage class
 Extern storage class simply tells us that the variable is defined elsewhere and not within the

same block where it is used.

 Basically, the value is assigned to it in a different block and this can be overwritten/changed in

a different block as well. So an extern variable is nothing but a global variable initialized with

a legal value where it is declared in order to be used elsewhere.

 It can be accessed within any function/block. Also, a normal global variable can be made

extern as well by placing the ‘extern’ keyword before its declaration/definition in any

function/block. This basically signifies that we are not initializing a new variable but instead

we are using/accessing the global variable only.

 The main purpose of using extern variables is that they can be accessed between two different

files which are part of a large program.

 Static storage class
 This storage class is used to declare static variables which are popularly used

while writing programs in C language.

 Static variables have a property of preserving their value even after they are out

of their scope! Hence, static variables preserve the value of their last use in their
scope.
 So we can say that they are initialized only once and exist till the termination of

the program. Thus, no new memory is allocated because they are not re-declared.
 Their scope is local to the function to which they were defined. Global static

variables can be accessed anywhere in the program. By default, they are assigned
the value 0 by the compiler.
 Register storage class
 This storage class declares register variables which have the same functionality as

that of the auto variables.

 The only difference is that the compiler tries to store these variables in the
register of the microprocessor if a free register is available. This makes the use of
register variables to be much faster than that of the variables stored in the
memory during the runtime of the program.
 If a free register is not available, these are then stored in the memory only.

Usually few variables which are to be accessed very frequently in a program are
declared with the register keyword which improves the running time of the
program.
 An important and interesting point to be noted here is that we cannot obtain the

address of a register variable using pointers.