POWER ELECTRONICS

Presented By:
Dr. V. SURESH
Assistant Professor
EEE
GIET (A)
 UNIT–I

Power Semi-Conductor Devices

Thyristors – static characteristics of Silicon controlled

rectifiers (SCR’s) and TRIAC Turn on and turn off Methods–
Dynamic characteristics of SCR– Snubber circuit design–
Basic requirements of Gating circuits for SCR – series and
parallel operation of SCR Characteristics of power MOSFET
and Power IGBT – SCR gate driving circuits.
 Introduction

 Power electronics combines power, electronics, and control.

 Control deals with the steady-state and dynamic characteristics of closed-loop

systems.

 Power deals with the static and rotating power equipment for the generation,
transmission, and distribution of electric energy.

 Electronics deal with the solid-state devices and ­circuits for signal processing to meet
the desired control objectives.

 Power electronics may be defined as the application of solid-state electronics for the
control and conversion of electric power.

 One could also define power electronics as the art of converting electrical energy
from one form to another in an efficient, clean, compact, and robust manner for the
energy utilization to meet the desired needs.
 Contd…
 The interrelationship of power electronics with power, electronics, and control is shown
in Figure 1.1.
 The arrow points to the direction of the current flow from anode (A) to cathode (K). It
can be turned on and off by a signal to the gate terminal (G). Without any gate signal, it
normally remains in the off-state, behaves as an open circuit, and can withstand a
voltage across the terminals A and K.
 Contd…

 Power electronics is based primarily on the switching of the power semiconductor

devices.
The power electronics circuits can be classified into six types:
1. Diode rectifiers
2. Dc–dc converters (dc choppers)
3. Dc–ac converters (inverters)
4. Ac–dc converters (controlled rectifiers)
5. Ac–ac converters (ac voltage controllers)
6. Static switches
 Contd…

 Since the first thyristor SCR was developed in late 1957, there have been
tremendous advances in the power semiconductor devices. Until 1970, the
conventional thyristors had been exclusively used for power control in industrial
applications. Since 1970, various types of power semiconductor devices were
developed and became commercially available.
 The classification of the power semiconductors, which are made of either silicon
or silicon carbide. Silicon carbide devices are, however, under development.
 A majority of the devices are made of silicon. :
(1) power diodes,
(2) thyristors,
(3) power bipolar junction transistors (BJTs),
(4) power metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs), and
(5) insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and static induction transistors
(SITs).
Classifications of Power Semi-conductor
devices
Applications of Power
Electronics
Advantages of Power
electronics
Block diagram of Power
electronics
Block diagram of Power
electronics
 Thyristor
 A thyristor has characteristics similar to a thyratron tube.
 But from the construction viewpoint, a thyristor (a pnpn device) belongs to transistor (pnp or npn device)
family.
 The name ‘thyristor’, is derived by a combination of the capital letters from THYRatron and transISTOR.
 This means that thyristor is a solid state device like a transistor and has characteristics similar to that of
a thyratron tube.
 Depending on the physical construction, and turn-on and turn-off behavior, thyristors can be broadly
classified into 13 categories:
1. Phase-controlled thyristors (or SCRs) A thyratron tube is a type of gas-
2. Bidirectional phase-controlled thyristors (BCTs) filled tube used as a high-power
3. Fast switching asymmetrical thyristors (or ASCRs) electrical switch and controlled
4. Light-activated silicon-controlled rectifiers (LASCRs) rectifier. It's essentially a gas-filled
5. Bidirectional triode thyristors (TRIACs) version of a vacuum tube (valve),
6. Reverse-conducting thyristors (RCTs) utilizing ionized gas to conduct
7. Gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs) current, unlike vacuum tubes which
8. FET-controlled thyristors (FET-CTHs) rely on a vacuum. Thyratrons are
9. MOS turn-off thyristors (MTOs) capable of handling much greater
10. Emitter turn-off (control) thyristors (ETOs) currents than vacuum tubes and are
11. Integrated gate-commutated thyristors (IGCTs) used in various applications
12. MOS-controlled thyristors (MCTs) 13. Static induction thyristors (SITHs) requiring high-voltage switching
 Thyristor and Its Construction

 Thyristor is a four layer, three-junction, p-n-p-n semiconductor switching device. It has

three terminals ; anode, cathode and gate. Fig. 4.1 (a) gives constructional details of a
typical thyristor.
 Basically, a thyristor consists of four layers of alternate p-type and n-type silicon
semiconductors forming three junctions J1, J2 and J3 as shown in Fig. 4.1 (a).
 The threaded portion is for the purpose of tightening the thyristor to the frame or heat
sink with the help of a nut.
 Contd…

 Gate terminal is usually kept near the cathode terminal Fig. 4.1 (a). Schematic diagram
and circuit symbol for a thyristor are shown respectively in Figs. 4.1 (b) and (c).
 The terminal connected to outer p region is called anode (A), the terminal connected to
outer n region is called cathode and that connected to inner p region is called the gate
(G).
 For large current applications, thyristors need better cooling ; this is achieved to a great
extent by mounting them onto heat sinks.
 SCR rating has improved considerably since its introduction in 1957. Now SCRs of
voltage rating 10 kV and an rms current rating of 3000 A with corresponding power-
handling capacity of 30 MW are available.
 Such a high power thyristor can be switched on by a low voltage supply of about 1 A
and 10 W and this gives us an idea of the immense power amplification capability (= 3 x
106) of this device.
 As SCRs are solid state devices, they are compact, possess high reliability and have low
loss.
 Because of these useful features, SCR is almost universally employed these days for all
high power-controlled devices.
 Static V-I characteristics of a
Thyristor
 An elementary circuit diagram for obtaining static
V-I characteristics of a thyristor is shown in Fig.
4.2 (a).
 The anode and cathode are connected to main
source through the load. The gate and cathode
are fed from a source E. which provides positive
gate current from gate to cathode.
 Fig. 4.2 (b) shows static V-I characteristics of a
thyristor.
 Here Va is the anode voltage across thyristor
terminals A, K and Ia is the anode current. Typical
SCR V-I characteristic shown in Fig. 4.2 (b) reveals
that a thyristor has three basic modes of
operation ; namely,
 Reverse blocking mode,
 Forward blocking (off-state) mode and
 Forward conduction (on-state) mode.
 Contd…

The avalanche effect in a diode refers to “a phenomenon

where a large reverse voltage causes a sudden increase in
current. This occurs when free electrons in the depletion
region gain enough kinetic energy due to the strong electric
field to collide with atoms, ionizing them and creating more
free charge carriers. This process repeats, leading to a chain
reaction (an "avalanche") of increased current”.
 Contd…
Reverse Blocking Mode.
 When cathode is made positive with respect to anode with switch S open, Fig. 4.2 (a), thyristor is
reverse biased as shown in Fig. 4.3 (a).
 Junctions J1, J3 are seen to be reverse biased whereas junction J2 is forward biased.
 The device behaves as if two diodes are connected in series with reverse voltage applied across
them. A small leakage current of the order of a few milli amperes flows. This is reverse blocking
mode, called the off-state, of the thyristor.
 If the reverse voltage is increased, then at a critical breakdown level, called reverse breakdown
voltage VBR, an avalanche occurs at J1 and J3 and the reverse current increases rapidly. A large
current associated with VBR gives rise to more losses in the SCR. This may lead to thyristor
damage as the junction temperature may exceed its permissible temperature rise.
 When reverse voltage applied across a thyristor is less than VBR, the device offers a high
impedance in the reverse direction. The SCR in the reverse blocking mode may therefore be
treated as an open switch
 Note that V-I characteristics after avalanche breakdown during reverse blocking mode is
applicable only when load resistance is zero, Fig. 4.2 (b). In case load resistance is present, a
large anode current associated with avalanche breakdown at VBR would cause substantial
voltage drop across load and as a result, V-I characteristic in third quadrant would bend to the
right of vertical line drawn at VBR.
 Contd…
Forward Blocking Mode :
 When anode is positive with respect to the cathode, with gate circuit open, thyristor is said to be
forward biased as shown in Fig. 4.3 (b).
 It is seen from this figure that junctions J1, J3 are forward biased but junction J2 is reverse biased.
 In this mode, a small current, called forward leakage current, flows as shown in Figs. 4.2 (b) and 4.3 (b).
 In case the forward voltage is increased, then the reverse biased junction J2 will have an avalanche
breakdown at a voltage called forward breakover voltage V BO.
 When forward voltage is less than VBO, SCR offers a high impedance. Therefore, a thyristor can be
treated as an open switch even in the forward blocking mode.
Forward Conduction Mode :
 In this mode, thyristor conducts currents from anode to cathode with a very small voltage drop across
it.
 A thyristor is brought from forward blocking mode to forward conduction mode-by turning it on by
exceeding the forward breakover voltage or by applying a gate pulse between gate and cathode. In this
mode, thyristor is in on-state and behaves like a closed switch. Voltage drop across thyristor in the on
state is of the order of 1 to 2 V depending on the rating of SCR.
 It may be seen from Fig. 4.2 (b) that this voltage drop increases slightly with an increase in anode
current. In conduction mode, anode current is limited by load impedance alone as voltage drop across
SCR is quite small. This small voltage drop V T across the device is due to ohmic drop in the four layers.
 Latching current and Holding current
Latching current
 The anode current must be more than a value known as latching current I L to maintain
the required amount of carrier flow across the junction; otherwise, the device reverts to
the blocking condition as the anode-to-cathode voltage is reduced.
 Latching current IL is the minimum anode current required to maintain the
thyristor in the on-state immediately after a thyristor has been turned on and
the gate signal has been removed.
Holding current
 Once a thyristor conducts, it behaves like a conducting diode and there is no control over
the device. The device continues to conduct because there is no depletion layer on the
junction J2 due to free movements of carriers.
 However, if the forward anode current is reduced below a level known as the holding
current IH, a depletion region develops around junction J2 due to the reduced number of
carriers and the thyristor is in the blocking state. The holding current is on the order of
milliamperes and is less than the latching current I L. That is, IL > IH.
 Holding current IH is the minimum anode current to maintain the thyristor in
the off-state. The holding current is less than the latching current.
 Turn-on methods of Thyristor
Or
Triggering methods of Thyristor

 With anode positive with respect to cathode, a thyristor can be turned on by

any one of the following techniques :
(a) Forward voltage triggering –
(b) gate triggering
(c) dv/dt triggering
(d) Temperature triggering
(e) Light triggering
 (a) Forward Voltage Triggering

 When anode to cathode forward voltage is increased with gate circuit open, the reverse biased junction J2
will break. This is known as avalanche breakdown and the voltage at which avalanche occurs is called
forward breakover voltage VBO.
 At this voltage, thyristor changes from off-state (high voltage with low leakage current) to on-state
characterised by low voltage across thyristor with large forward current.
 As other junctions J1, J3 are already forward biased, breakdown of junction J2 allows free movement of
carriers across three junctions and as a result, large forward anode-current flows.
 As stated before, this forward current is limited by the load impedance. In practice, the transition from off-
state to on-state obtained by exceeding VBO is never employed as it may destroy the device. The
magnitudes of forward and reverse breakover voltages are nearly the same and both are temperature
dependent. In practice, it is found that VBR is slightly more than VBO.
 Therefore, forward breakover voltage is taken as the final voltage rating of the device during the design of
SCR applications. After the avalanche breakdown, junction J2 looses its reverse blocking capability.
Therefore, if the anode voltage is reduced below VB0 SCR will continue conduction of the current.
 (b) Gate Triggering
 Turning on of thyristors by gate triggering is simple, reliable and efficient, it is therefore
the most usual method of firing the forward biased SCRs.
 A thyristor with forward breakover voltage (say 800V) higher than the normal working
voltage (say 400 V) is chosen. This means that thyristor will remain in forward blocking
sate with normal working voltage across anode and cathode and with gate open.
 However, when turn-on of a thyristor is required, a positive gate voltage between gate
and cathode is applied.
 With gate current thus established, charges are injected into the inner p layer and voltage
at which forward breakover occurs is reduced.
 The forward voltage at which the device switches to on-state depends upon the
magnitude of gate current. Higher the gate current, lower is the forward breakover
voltage.
 When positive gate current is applied, gate P layer is flooded with electrons from the
cathode. This is because cathode N layer is heavily doped as compared to gate P layer.
 As the thyristor is forward biased, some of these electrons reach junction J2. As a result,
width of depletion layer around junction J2 is reduced. This causes the junction J2' to
breakdown at an applied voltage lower than forward breakover voltage V B0.
 If magnitude of gate current is increased, more electrons will reach junction J2, as a
consequence thyristor will get turned on at a much lower forward applied voltage.
 (b) Gate Triggering

 Fig. 4.2 (b) shows that for gate current, Ig = 0,

forward breakover voltage is VBO. For Ig1,
forward breakover voltage, or turn-on voltage is
less than VBO. For Ig2 > Ig1, forward breakover
voltage is still further reduced. The effect of gate
current on the forward breakover voltage of a
thyristor can also be illustrated by means of a
curve as shown in Fig. 4.4. For Ig <0a, forward
breakover voltage remains almost constant at
VB0.
 For gate currents Igl, Ig2 and Ig3, the values of
forward breakover voltages are 0x, 0y and 0z,
respectively as shown. In Fig. 4.2 (b), the curve
marked Ig = 0 is actually for gate current less
than 0a. In practice, the magnitude of gate
current is more than the minimum gate current
required to turn on the SCR. Typical gate current
magnitudes are of the order of 20 to 200 mA.
 (c) dv/dt Triggering

 With forward voltage across the anode and cathode of a thyristor, the two
outer junctions J1, J3 are forward biased, but inner junction J2 is reverse
biased.
 This reverse biased junction J2, Fig. 4.3 (b), has the characteristics of a
capacitor due to charges existing across the junction.
 In other words, space-charges exist in the depletion region near junction J2
and therefore junction J2 behaves like a capacitance. If forward voltage is
suddenly applied, a charging current through junction capacitance Ci may
turn on the SCR. Almost the entire suddenly applied forward voltage V.
appears across junction J2. the charging current i., is, therefore, given by
 Therefore, if rate of rise of forward voltage dv/dt is high, the charging
current Ic would be more. This charging current plays the role of gate
current and turns on the SCR even though gate signal is zero. Note that
even if V is small, it is the rate of change of Va that plays the role of turning-
on the device.
 (d) Temperature Triggering

 Temperature triggering is also called thermal triggering.

 During forward blocking, most of the applied voltage appears across reverse
biased junction J2.
 This voltage across J2 associated, with leakage current, would raise the
temperature of this junction.
 With increase in temperature, width of depletion layer decreases.
 This further leads to more leakage current and therefore, more junction
temperature. With the cumulative process, at some high temperature (within
the safe limits), depletion layer of this reverse biased junction vanishes and
the device gets turned on.
 (e) Light Triggering

 For light-triggered SCRs, a recess (or niche) is made

in the inner p-layer as shown in Fig.
 When this recess is irradiated, free charge carriers
(holes and electrons) are generated just like when
gate signal is applied between gate and cathode.
 The pulse of light of appropriate wavelength is
guided by optical fibres for irradiation.
 If the intensity of this light thrown on the recess
exceeds a certain value, forward-biased SCR is
turned on.
 Such a thyristor is known as light-activated SCR
(LASCR).
 Contd..
 LASCR may be triggered with a light source or with a gate signal. Sometimes
a combination of both light source and gate signal is used to trigger an SCR,.
 For this, the gate is biased with voltage or current slightly less than that
required to turn it on, now a beam of light directed at the inner p-layer
junction turns on the SCR.
 The light intensity required to turn-on the SCR depends upon the voltage bias
given to the gate. Higher the voltage (or current) bias, lower the light
intensity required.
 Light-triggered thyristors have now been used in high-voltage direct current
(HVDC) transmission systems.
 In these several SCRs are connected in series-parallel combination and their
light-triggering has the advantage of electrical isolation between power and
control circuits.
 Switching or Dynamic
Characteristics of Thyristor

 Static and switching characteristics of thyristors are always taken into

consideration for economical and reliable design of converter equipment.
 During turn-on and turn-off processes, a thyristor is subjected to different
voltages across it and different currents through it.
 The time variations of the voltage across a thyristor and the current through it
during turn-on and turn-off processes give the dynamic or switching
characteristics of a thyristor.
 Here, first switching characteristics during turn-on are described and then the
switching characteristics during turn-off.
 Switching characteristics during turn-
on
 A forward-biased thyristor is usually turned on by applying a positive gate voltage
between gate and cathode.
 There is a transition time from forward off-state to forward on state.
 This transition time is called thyristor turn-on time and is defined as “the time
during which it changes from forward blocking state to final on-state”.
 Total turn-on time can be divided into three intervals ;

(i) delay time td ,

(ii) rise time tr and

(iii) spread time tP

 Delay time (td)

 The delay time td, is measured from the instant at which gate current, Ig reaches

to 0.9 or to the instant at which anode current reaches 0.1 of Ia.

Here Ig and Ia are respectively the final values of gate and anode currents.
 The delay time may also be defined as the time during which anode voltage falls
from Va to 0.9Va, where Va = initial value of anode voltage.
 Another way of defining delay time is the time during which anode current rises
from forward leakage current to 0.1 Ia
 where Ia= final value of anode current.
 With the thyristor initially in the forward blocking state, the anode voltage is OA
and anode current is small leakage current as shown in the figure.
t d 
 Rise time tr

 The rise time, tr is the time taken by the anode current to rise from 0.1 Ia to 0.9 Ia.
 The rise time is also defined as the time required for the forward blocking off-state

voltage to fall from 0.9 VA to 0.1 VA of its initial value OA.

 The rise time is inversely proportional to the magnitude of gate current and its
build up rate.
 Thus tr can be reduced if high and step current pulses are applied to the gate.
 However, the main factor determining tr is the nature of anode circuit.
 For example, for series RL circuit, the rate of rise of anode current is slow,

therefore, tr is more. For RC series circuit, di/dt is high, tr is therefore, less.

 Spread time tP

 The spread time tP is the time taken by the anode current to rise from 0.9 Ia to Ia.
 It is also defined as the time for the forward blocking voltage to fall from 0.1 of its
value to the on-state voltage drop (1 to 1.5 V).
 During this time, conduction spreads over the entire cross-section of the cathode
of SCR.
 The spreading interval depends on the area of cathode and on gate structure of
the SCR.
 After the spread time, anode current attains steady state value and the voltage
drop across SCR is equal to the on-state voltage drop of the order of 1 to 1.5 V,
Fig. 4.8.

 Total turn-on time of an SCR is equal to the sum of delay time, rise time
and spread time. Thyristor manufacturers usually specify the rise time
which is typically of the order of 1 to 4 micro sec.
 Total turn-on time depends upon the anode circuit parameters and the
gate signal wave shapes.
 t P 
Switching characteristics during turn-
off
 The turn-off time tq of a thyristor is defined as the time between the instant anode current becomes

zero and the instant SCR regains forward blocking capability.

 During time tq, all the excess carriers from the four layers of SCR must be removed.
 This removal of excess carriers consists of sweeping out of holes from outer P-layer and electrons from
outer N-layer. The carriers around junction J 2 can be removed only by recombination.
 The turn-off time is divided into two intervals ;

1. Reverse Recovery time trr

2. Gate Recovery time tgr;

i.e. tq = trr + tgr.

 Switching characteristics during turn-
off
 Reverse recovery Time: The time taken by the reverse recovery current to remove the excess charge
carriers from the outer junctions J1 and J3.
 Gate Recovery Time: The time taken to remove the excess charge carriers from the middle junction J 2
by recombination process.
 At instant t1, anode current becomes zero.
 After t1, antode current builds up in the reverse direction with the same di/dt slope as before t1.
 The reason for the reversal of anode current after t1 is due to the presence of carriers stored in the four
layers. The reverse recovery current removes excess carriers from the end junctions J 1 and J3 between
the instants t1 and t3.
 In other words, reverse recovery current flows due to the sweeping out of holes from top P-layer and
electrons from bottom N-layer.
 At instant t2, when about 60% of the stored charges are removed from the outer two layers, carrier
density across J1 and J1 begins to decrease and with this reverse recovery current also starts decaying.
The reverse current decay is fast in the beginning but gradual thereafter.
 t P 
Switching characteristics during turn-
off
 At the end of reverse recovery period ( t3 -t1), the middle junction J2 still has trapped charges, therefore,
the thyristor is not able to block the forward voltage at t3. The trapped charges around J2, i.e. in the
inner two layers, cannot flow to the external circuit, therefore, these trapped charges must decay only by
recombination.
 This recombination is possible if a reverse voltage is maintained across SCR, though the magnitude of
this voltage is not important.
 The rate of recombination of charges is independent of the external circuit parameters.
 The time for the recombination of charges between t3 and t4 is called gate recovery time tgr
 At instant t4, junction J2 recovers and the forward voltage can be reapplied between anode and cathode.
 The thyristor turn-off time tq is in the range of 3 to 100 microsec. The turn-off time is influenced by the
magnitude of forward current, di/dt at the time of commutation and junction temperature.
 An increase in the magnitude of these factors increases the thyristor turn-off time. If the value of
forward current before commutation is high, trapped charges around junction J 2 are more.
 Switching characteristics during turn-
off
 The thyristor turn-off time tq is applicable to an individual SCR. In actual practice,
thyristor (or thyristors) form a part of the power circuit.
 The turn-off time provided to the thyristor by the practical circuit is called circuit
turn-off time tc.
 It is defined as the time between the instant anode current becomes zero and the
instant reverse voltage due to practical circuit reaches zero,
 Time tc, must be greater than tq for reliable turn-off, otherwise the device may
turn-on at an undesired instant, a process called commutation failure.
 Thyristors with slow turn-off time (50-100 microsec) are called converter grade
SCRs and those with fast turn-off time (3-50 microsec) are called inverter-grade
SCRs.
 Converter-grade SCRs are cheaper and are used in phase-controlled rectifiers, ac
voltage controllers, cyclo converters etc.
 Inverter-grade SCRs are costlier and are used in inverters, choppers and force-
commutated converters.
 Protection of Thyristor

 Reliable operation of a thyristor demands that its specified ratings are not
exceeded.
 In practice, a thyristor may be subjected to overvoltage's or overcurrent's.
 During SCR turn-on, di/dt may be prohibitively large.
 There may be false triggering of SCR by high value of dv/dt.
 A spurious signal across gate-cathode terminals may lead to unwanted turn-on.
 A thyristor must be protected against all such abnormal conditions for
satisfactory and reliable operation- of SCR circuit and the equipment.
 SCRs are very delicate devices, their protection against abnormal operating
conditions is, therefore, essential.
 t P 
Design of Snubber Circuit

 A snubber circuit consists of a series

combination of resistance R, and capacitance
C in parallel with the thyristor as shown in Fig.
4.25.
 Strictly speaking, a capacitor C in parallel
with the device is sufficient to prevent
unwanted dv/dt triggering of the SCR.
 When switch S is closed, a sudden voltage
appears across the circuit.
 Capacitor C behaves like a short circuit,
therefore voltage across SCR is zero.
 With the passage of time, voltage across Cs
builds up at a slow rate such that dv/dt across
Cs and therefore across SCR is less than the
specified maximum dv/dt rating of the device.
 Design of Snubber Circuit
t  P

 Here the question arises that if Cs is enough to prevent accidental turn-on of the device
by dv/dt, what is the need of putting Rs in series with Cs ?
 The answer is before SCR is fired by gate pulse, C charges to full voltage Vs.
 When the SCR is turned on, capacitor discharges through the SCR and sends a current
equal to
Vs/ (resistance of local path formed by Cs and SCR).
 As this resistance is quite low, the turn-on di/dt will tend to be excessive and as a result,
SCR may be destroyed.
 In order to limit the magnitude of discharge current, a resistance R, is inserted in series
with Cs as shown in Fig. 4.25.
 Now when SCR is turned on, initial discharge current Vs/R, is relatively small and turn-on
di/dt is reduced.
 In actual practice ; Rs, Cs and the load circuit parameters should be such that dv/dt
across Cs during its charging is less than the specified dv/dt rating of the SCR and
discharge current at the turn-on of SCR is within reasonable limits.
 Normally, Rs, Cs and load circuit parameters form an underdamped circuit so that dv/dt is
limited to acceptable values.
 The design of snubber circuit parameters is quite complex.
 t P 
Basic requirements of Gating circuits for
SCR
 Basic requirements of Gating
t  circuits for P

SCR
 The design of the firing circuit can be carried out with the help of Figs. 4.10 and 4.11. In Fig. 4.10
(a) is shown a trigger circuit feeding power to gate-cathode circuit.
 For this circuit, Es=Vg+IgRs
 Series and parallel operation
t  of SCR P

 SCR ratings have improved considerably since its introduction in 1957. Presently,
SCRs with voltage and current ratings of 10 kV and 3 kA are available. However, for
some industrial applications, the demand for voltage and current ratings is so high
that a single SCR cannot fulfil such requirements. In such cases, SCRs are connected
in series in order to meet the h.v. demand and in parallel for fulfilling the high
current, demand. For series or parallel connected SCRs, it should be ensured that
each SCR rating is fully utilized and the system operation is satisfactory.
 String efficiency is a term that is used for measuring the degree of utilization of SCRs
in a string. String efficiency of SCRs connected in series/parallel is defined as,
 string efficiency = Actual voltage/current rating of the whole string / [Individual
voltage/current rating of one SCR ] [Number of SCRs in the string]
 In practice, this ratio is less than one.
 Series and parallel operation
t  of SCR
P

 A measure of the reliability of string is given by a factor called derating

factor DRF defined as under : DRF =1— string efficiency
 If the value of recommended DRF is more, the number of devices used in
series/parallel string will be more. This will certainly improve the reliability
of the string for a given rating of the string. The object of this section is to
study the problems concerning the series/parallel operation of SCRs and to
discuss the measures adopted to overcome these problems.
 Series operation of
t SCR P

 When system voltage is more than the voltage rating of a single thyristor, SCRs are
connected in series in a string.
 As stated before, these SCRs should have their V - I characteristics as close as possible. On
account of inherent variations in their characteristics, the voltage shared by each SCR may
not be equal. For instance, consider two SCRs with their static V-I characteristics as shown in
Fig. 4.35. For SCR1, leakage resistance (= V1/I0) is high whereas for SCR2, it is low (V2/I0).
 For the same leakage current in the series connected SCRs, SCR1 supports rated voltage V1
whereas SCR2 supports voltage V2 < V1.
 Series operation of
t SCR P

 It is seen from Fig. 4.35 that two SCRs can support a

 A uniform voltage distribution in steady state can be achieved by connecting a suitable resistance
across each SCR such that each parallel combination has the same resistance. This will require
different value of resistance for each SCR which is a difficult proposition.
 A more practical way of obtaining a reasonably uniform voltage distribution during steady state
working of series-connected SCRs is to connect the same value of shunt resistance R across each
SCR as shown in Fig. 4.36. This shunt resistance R is called the static equalizing circuit. Magnitude
of parallel resistance R can be obtained as follows [1].
 Consider n thyristors connected in series as shown in Fig. 4.36. Let SCR1 has minimum leakage
current Ibmn and each of the remaining (n — 1) SCRs have the same leakage current Ibmx > Ibmn.
An examination of Fig. 4.35 (b) reveals that an SCR with lower leakage current blocks more voltage.
 Parallel operation of
t  SCR P

 When current required by the load is more than

the rated current of a single thyristor, SCRs are
connected in parallel in a string.
 For equal sharing of currents, V — I
characteristics of SCRs during forward conduction
must be identical as far as possible.
 In Fig. 4.40 (a) are shown two SCRs in parallel and
their characteristics during forward conduction
are shown in Fig. 4.40 (b).
 For parallel-connected SCRs, voltage drop VT
across them must be equal.
 Fig. 4.40 (b) shows that for the same voltage drop
VT SCR1 shares a rated current I1 whereas SCR2
carries current I2 much less than the rated
current I.
 The total current carried by the unit is I1 + I2 and
not the rated current 2I1 as required. Therefore,
string efficiency is given by
 t P 
MOSFET(Metal Oxide Field Effect Transistor)
A power MOSFET is a voltage-controlled device and requires only a small input current.
A metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is a recent device developed by
combining the areas of field-effect concept and MOS technology.
A power MOSFET has three terminals called drain, source and gate in place of the corresponding
three terminals collector, emitter and base for BJT.
The circuit symbol of power MOSFET is as shown In Fig. 2.11 (a). Here arrow indicates the direction
of electron flow. A BJT is a current controlled device whereas a power MOSFET is a voltage-
controlled device.
As its operation depends upon the flow of majority carriers only, MOSFET is a unipolar device. The
control signal, or base current in BJT_is much larger than the control signal (or gate current) required
in a MOSFET. This is because of the fact that gate circuit impedance in MOSFET is extremely high,
of the order of 109 ohm.
This large impedance permits the MOSFET gate to be driven directly from microelectronic circuits.
BJT suffers from second breakdown voltage whereas MOSFET is free from this problem.
Power MOSFETs are now finding increasing applications in low-power high frequency converters.
 MOSFET t P 

 Power MOSFETs are of two

types ;
 n-channel enhancement
MOSFET and p-channel
enhancement MOSFET.
 Out of these two types, n-
channel enhancement
MOSFET is more common
because of higher mobility of
electrons.
 Characteristics of power
t  MOSFET P

(a) Transfer characteristics:

 This characteristic shows the variation of drain current ID as a function of gate-source
voltage VGS. Fig. 2.13 (b) shows typical transfer characteristic for n-channel power
MOSFET. It is seen that there is threshold voltage VGST below which the device is off.
 The magnitude of VGS is of the order of 2 to 3 V
 Characteristics of power
t  MOSFET P

(b) Output characteristics.

 Power MOSFET output characteristics shown in Fig. 2.14 indicate the variation of drain current
ID as a function of drain-source voltage VDS as a parameter.
 For low values of VDS the graph between ID — VDS is almost linear.
 For given VGS, if VDS is increased, output characteristic is relatively flat indicating that drain
current is nearly constant.
 A load line intersects the output characteristics at A and B. Here A indicates fully-on condition
and B fully-off state.
 Power MOSFET operates as a switch either at A or at B just like a BJT.
 IGBT t  P

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

 IGBT is a new development in the area of power MOSFET technology This device
combines into it the advantages of both MOSFET and BJT.
 So an IGBT has high input impedance like a MOSFET and low-on-state power loss as
in a BJT.
 Further, IGBT is free from second breakdown problem present in BJT.
 IGBT is also known as metal-oxide insulated gate transistor (MOSIGT), conductively-
modulated field effect transistor (COMFET) or gain-modulated FET (GEMFET). It was
also initially called insulated gate transistor (IGT).
 BJT: 1200V, 800A, f<20KHZ
 MOSFET:500V, 140A, f<1MHZ
 IGBT:1200V, 500A, f<50KHZ
 Characteristics of power
t  IGBT P

 Static V-I or output characteristics of an IGBT (n-channel type) show the plot of collector
current Ic versus collector-emitter voltage VCE for various values of gate-emitter voltages.
 These characteristics are shown in Fig. 2.18 (b).
 In the forward direction, the shape of the output characteristics is similar to that of BJT. But
here the controlling parameter is gate-emitter voltage VGE because IGBT is a voltage-
controlled device.
 The transfer characteristic of an IGBT is a plot of collector current Ic versus gate-emitter
voltage VGE as shown in Fig. 2.18 (c).
 This characteristic is identical to that of power MOSFET. When VGE is less than the threshold
voltage VGET, IGBT is in the off-state.
 SCR Gate driving Circuits
t  P

An SCR can be switched from off-state to on-state in several ways ; these are
forward-voltage triggering, dv/dt triggering, temperature triggering, light triggering
and gate triggering, see Art. 4.2. The instant of turning on the SCR cannot be
controlled by the first three methods listed above. Light triggering is used in some
applications, particularly in a series-connected string. Gate triggering is, however,
the most common method of turning on the SCRs, because this method lends itself
accurately for turning on the SCR at the desired instant of time. In addition, gate
triggering is an efficient and reliable method. In this section, firing circuits for
thyristors are studied in detail.
 SCR Gate driving Circuits
t  P

As stated above, the most common method for controlling the onset of conduction in an SCR is by
means of gate voltage control. The gate control circuit is also called firing, or triggering, circuit.
These gating circuits are usually low-power electronic circuits. A firing circuit should fulfil the
following two functions.
(i) If power circuit has more than one SCR, the firing circuit should produce gating pulses for each
SCR at the desired instant for proper operation of the power circuit. These pulses must be
periodic in nature and the sequence of firing must correspond with the type of thyristorised
power controller. For example, in a single-phase semiconductor using two SCRs, 644 triggering
circuit must produce one firing pulse in each hoflf cycle; in a 3-phase full converter using six
SCRs, gating circuit must produce one trigger pulse after every 60° interval.
(ii) (ii) The control signal generated by a firing circuit may not be able to turn-on an SCR. It is
therefore common to feed the voltage pulses to a driver circuit and then to gate-cathode
circuit. A driver circuit consists of a pulse amplifier and a pulse transformer. A firing circuit
scheme, in general, consists of the components shown in Fig. 4.52. A regulated dc power
supply is obtained from an alternating voltage source. Pulse generator, supplied from both ac
and dc sources, gives out voltage pulses which are then fed to pulse amplifier for their
amplification. Shielded cables transmit the amplified pulses to pulse transformers. The function
of pulse transformer is to isolate the low-voltage gate-cathode circuit from the high-voltage
anode-cathode circuit
 SCR Gate driving Circuits
t  P

Resistance firing circuits.

 As stated above, resistance trigger circuits are the simplest and most economical. They
however, suffer from a limited range of firing angle control (0° to 90°), great dependence on
temperature and difference in performance between individual SCRs.
SCR Gate driving Circuits
t 
P
SCR Gate driving Circuits
t 
P
 SCR Gate driving Circuits
t  P

(b) RC firing circuits.

The limited range of firing angle control by resistance firing circuit can be overcome by
RC firing circuit. There are several variations of RC trigger circuits. Here only two of them
are presented.
SCR Gate driving Circuits
t 
P
SCR Gate driving Circuits
t 
P
SCR Gate driving Circuits
t 
P
 SCR Gate driving Circuits
t  P

Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

 Resistance and RC triggering circuits described above give prolonged
pulses. As a result, power dissipation in the gate circuit is large.
 At the same time, R and RC triggering circuits cannot be used for
automatic or feedback control systems. These difficulties can be overcome
by the use of UJT triggering circuits. Pulse triggering is preferred as it offers
several merits over R and RC triggering. Gate characteristics have a wide
spread, Fig. 4.9. Pulses can be adjusted easily to suit such a wide spectrum
of gate characteristics.
 The power level in pulse triggering is low as the gate drive is
discontinuous, pulse triggering is therefore more efficient. As pulses with
higher gate current are permissible, pulse firing is more reliable and faster.
In this section, first UJT is described along with its characteristics and then
its use as a relaxation oscillator for triggering SCRs is presented.
SCR Gate driving Circuits
t 
P
SCR Gate driving Circuits
t 
P
 t P 
Commutation methods (Turn off Methods)

• A thyristor that is in the on-state can be turned off by reducing the

forward current to a level below the holding current IH.
• There are various techniques for turning off a thyristor.
• In all the commutation techniques, the anode current is maintained
below the holding current for a sufficiently long time, so that all the
excess carriers in the four layers are swept out or recombined.
Two types of commutation techniques:
1. Line-commutated circuit
2. Forced-commutated circuit
 t  off Methods)
Commutation methods (Turn P

Line-commutated circuit or Natural commutation:

• Natural Commutation of SCR is the process of turning off an SCR without using additional
commutation circuitry.
• When SCR is conducting, the current will pass through zero after every positive half
cycle. After that, the AC source then applies a reverse voltage across the terminals of
SCR till the beginning of second cycle.
• If the time of application of reverse voltage applied by the AC source is more than the
SCR turn-off time, then SCR will get turned off.
 Commutation methods (Turn off Methods)

Forced commutated circuit

• Unlike natural commutation, an external circuitry is required to forcibly bring
the SCR anode current below holding current and keeping SCR reversed
biased for a period more than the SCR/thyristor turn off time.
• This technique is applied for DC circuit. The commutation circuitry for forced
commutation comprises of Inductor and capacitor.
• Forced commutation is applied to Choppers and Inverters.
There are several forced commutation techniques. They are as follows:
1. Class-A Commutation (also known as Load Commutation)
2. Class-B Commutation (also known as Resonant Pulse Commutation)
3. Class-C Commutation (Complimentary Commutation)
4. Class-D Commutation or Impulse Commutation
5. Class-E Commutation or External Pulse Commutation
 Commutation methods (Turn
t off Methods)
P

Forced commutated circuit

 Commutation methods (Turn
t off Methods)
P

Class-A Commutation (also known as Load Commutation)

 Commutation methods (Turn
t off Methods)
P

Class-B Commutation
 Commutation methods (Turn
t off Methods)
P

Class-C Commutation
 Commutation methods (Turn
t off Methods)
P

Class-C Commutation
 Commutation methods (Turn
t off Methods)
P

Class-D Commutation
 Commutation methods (Turn
t off Methods)
P

Class-E Commutation
TRIAC t P 