Chapter 1:
Introductory
Concepts
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Chapter Objectives
After studying this chapter, students should be able to:
· Explain the basic differences between digital and analog quantities
· Show how voltage levels are used to represent digital quantities
· Describe various parameters of a pulse waveform such as rise time, fall time, pulse width,
frequency, period, and duty cycle
· Explain the basic logic functions of NOT, AND, and OR
· Describe several types of logic operations and explain their application in an example system
· Describe programmable logic, discuss the various types, and describe how PLDs are
programmed
· Identify fixed-function digital integrated circuits according to their complexity and the type of
circuit packaging
· Identify pin numbers on integrated circuit packages
· Recognize various instruments and understand how they are used in measurement and
troubleshooting digital circuits and systems
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Chapter Outline
1.1 Digital and Analog Quantities
1.2 Binary Digits, Logic Levels, and Digital Waveforms
1.3 Basic Logic Functions
1.4 Combinational and Sequential Logic Functions
1.5 Introduction to Programmable Logic
1.6 Fixed-Function Logic Devices
1.7 Test and Measurement Instruments
1.8 Introduction to Troubleshooting
Multiple-choice test and Problems
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1.1. Digital and Analog Quantities
Electronic circuits can be divided into two broad categories, digital and
analog.
•Define analog
•Define digital
•Explain the difference between digital and analog quantities
•The advantages of digital over analog
An analog quantity is one having continuous values. A digital quantity is one having
a discrete set of values.
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1.1. Digital and Analog Quantities
An Analog System
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1.1. Digital and Analog Quantities
A System Using Digital and Analog Methods
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1.1. Digital and Analog Quantities
Mechatronics
Both digital and analog electronics are used in the control of various
mechanical systems. The interdisciplinary field that comprises both
mechanical and electronic components is known as mechatronics.
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1.2. Binary Digits, Logic Levels, and
Digital Waveforms
Binary Digits
Each of the two digits in the binary system, 1 and 0, is called a bit, which is
a contraction of the words binary digit. In digital circuits, two different
voltage levels are used to represent the two bits.
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1.2. Binary Digits, Logic Levels, and Digital
Waveforms
Digital Waveforms
Digital waveforms consist of voltage levels that are changing back and forth
between the HIGH and LOW levels or states.
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1.2. Binary Digits, Logic Levels, and Digital
Waveforms
The Pulse
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1.2. Binary Digits, Logic Levels, and Digital
Waveforms
Waveform Characteristics
Most waveforms encountered in digital systems are composed of series of pulses,
sometimes called pulse trains, and can be classified as either periodic or
nonperiodic.
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1.2. Binary Digits, Logic Levels, and Digital
Waveforms
The Clock
In digital systems, all waveforms are synchronized with a basic timing
waveform called the clock. The clock is a periodic waveform in which each
interval between pulses (the period) equals the time for one bit.
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1.2. Binary Digits, Logic Levels, and Digital
Waveforms
Timing Diagrams
A timing diagram is a graph of digital waveforms showing the actual time
relationship of two or more waveforms and how each waveform changes in
relation to the others.
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1.2. Binary Digits, Logic Levels, and Digital
Waveforms
Timing Diagrams
A timing diagram is a graph of digital waveforms showing the actual time
relationship of two or more waveforms and how each waveform changes in
relation to the others.
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1.2. Binary Digits, Logic Levels, and Digital
Waveforms
Data Transfer
Data refers to groups of bits that convey some type of information. Binary data,
which are represented by digital waveforms, must be transferred from one device
to another within a digital system or from one system to another in order to
accomplish a given purpose.
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1.3. Basic Logic Functions
Three basic logic functions (NOT, AND, and OR) are indicated by standard
distinctive shape symbols
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1.3. Basic Logic Functions
NOT GATE
When the input is HIGH (1), the output is LOW (0). When the input is LOW, the
output is HIGH. In either case, the output is not the same as the input. The
NOT function is implemented by a logic circuit known as an inverter.
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1.3. Basic Logic Functions
AND GATE
When one input is HIGH and the other input is HIGH, the output is HIGH.
When any or all inputs are LOW, the output is LOW. The AND function is
implemented by a logic circuit known as an AND gate.
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1.3. Basic Logic Functions
OR GATE
When one input is HIGH or the other input is HIGH or both inputs are HIGH,
the output is HIGH. When both inputs are LOW, the output is LOW. The OR
function is implemented by a logic circuit known as an OR gate.
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1.4. Combinational and Sequential Logic
Functions
The Comparison Function
Magnitude comparison is performed by a logic circuit called a comparator.
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1.4. Combinational and Sequential Logic
Functions
The Arithmetic Functions
Addition
Addition is performed by a logic circuit called an adder
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1.4. Combinational and Sequential Logic
Functions
The Encoding Function
The encoding function is performed by a logic circuit called an encoder.
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1.4. Combinational and Sequential Logic
Functions
The Data Selection Function
Two types of circuits that select data are the multiplexer and the
demultiplexer. The multiplexer, or mux for short, is a logic circuit that
switches digital data from several input lines onto a single output line in a
specified time sequence.
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1.4. Combinational and Sequential Logic
Functions
Registers
A register is formed by combining several flip-flops so that groups of bits can
be stored.
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1.4. Combinational and Sequential Logic
Functions
General Operation
The maximum number of
tablets per bottle is entered
from the keypad, changed
to a code by the Encoder,
and stored in Register A.
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1.5. Introduction to Programmable Logic
Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)
Two major categories of user-programmable logic are PLD (programmable
logic device) and FPGA (field-programmable gate array), as indicated in
Figure 1–29. PLDs are either SPLDs (simple PLDs) or CPLDs (complex
PLDs).
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1.5. Introduction to Programmable Logic
Simple Programmable Logic Device (SPLD)
The SPLD was the original PLD and is still available for small-scale
applications.
Complex Programmable Logic Device (CPLD)
As technology progressed and the amount of circuitry that could be put on
a chip (chip density) increased, manufacturers were able to put more than
one SPLD on a single chip and the CPLD was born.
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1.5. Introduction to Programmable Logic
Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA)
An FPGA is generally more complex and has a much higher density than a
CPLD, although their applications can sometimes overlap.
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1.5. Introduction to Programmable Logic
The Programming Process
An SPLD, CPLD, or FPGA can be thought of as a “blank slate” on which you
implement a specified circuit or system design using a certain process.
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1.6. Fixed-Function Logic Devices
A monolithic integrated circuit (IC) is an electronic circuit that is
constructed entirely on a single small chip of silicon. All the components that
make up the circuit—transistors, diodes, resistors, and capacitors—are an
integral part of that single chip. Fixed-function logic and programmable logic
are two broad categories of digital ICs. In fixed-function logic devices, the
logic functions are set by the manufacturer and cannot be altered.
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1.6. Fixed-Function Logic Devices
IC Packages
Integrated circuit (IC) packages are classified according to the way they are
mounted on printed circuit boards (PCBs) as either through-hole mounted
or surface mounted.
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1.6. Fixed-Function Logic Devices
Pin Numbering
All IC packages have a standard format for numbering the pins (leads).
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1.7. Test and Measurement Instruments
The Oscilloscope
The oscilloscope (scope for short) is one of the most widely used
instruments for general testing and troubleshooting.
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1.7. Test and Measurement Instruments
Oscilloscope Controls
A front panel view of a typical four-channel digital oscilloscope
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1.7. Test and Measurement Instruments
The Logic Analyzer
Logic analyzers are used for measurements of multiple digital signals and
measurement situations with difficult trigger requirements.
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1.7. Test and Measurement Instruments
Analysis and Display
Once data has been sampled and stored in the acquisition memory, it can
typically be used in several different display and analysis modes.
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1.7. Test and Measurement Instruments
The DC Power Supply
This instrument is an indispensable instrument on any test bench.
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1.8. Introduction to Troubleshooting
Half-Splitting Method
In this procedure, you check for the presence or absence of a signal at a
point halfway between input and output.
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1.8. Introduction to Troubleshooting
Signal-Tracing Method
Signal tracing is the procedure of tracking signals as they progress through
a system from input to output.
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SUMMARY
Chapter 1: Introduction Concepts
•Analog signals are continuous; digital signals have discrete values. Frequency and period
are inversely related:
•Duty cycle is the ratio of pulse width to period, and basic logic operations include NOT,
AND, OR with standard symbols.
•PLDs include SPLDs (e.g., PAL, GAL) and CPLDs, while FPGAs are used for more
complex designs.
•ICs are categorized by packaging (through-hole, surface-mounted), logic families (CMOS,
TTL/Bipolar, BiCMOS), and complexity levels (SSI to ULSI).
•Key tools for testing digital circuits include oscilloscopes, logic analyzers, multimeters, and
power supplies. Troubleshooting methods include half-splitting and signal-tracing.
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MULTIPLE-CHOICE TEST AND PROBLEMS
Complete the true/false questions, multiple-
choice questions, and end-of-chapter
exercises in the primary textbook.
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