Rings
Homomorphism
Let R and RI be two rings. A mapping f:R →RI is a
homomorphism if it satisfies
(i) f(a+b) =f(a)+f(b)
(ii)f(ab)=f(a).f(b) ˅ a,b ЄR
Isomorphism
Let R and RI be two rings a mapping f:R →RI is
called an isomorphism. If
i) f is one to one and onto
ii) f(a+b) =f(a)+f(b)
iii) f(ab)=f(a).f(b) ˅ a,b ЄR
Eg: Consider the ring Z of integers under
ordinary addition and multiplication and the
ring 2z of even integer under ordinary
addition and another open * defined by a*b
=ab/2 where a*b is the ordinary
multiplication of 2 even integer a and b check
whether f is an isomorphism?
m and n be two elements
Then f(m)=2m
f(n)=2n
f(m+n)=2(m+n)
=2m+2n
=f(m)+f(n)
f(mn)=2mn
= (2m×2n)/2
= f(m).f(n)
If f is an isomorphism of a ring R on the ring to RI
then
Theorem-1
image of zero of R is zero of RI
f(0)=0I
Let a ЄR f(a)ЄRI
Let oI denotes the zero element of RI
to P.T f(0)=0I we have f(a)+oI = f(a)
=f(a+0)
=f(a)+f(0)
oI = f(0)
Theorem-2
The image of –ve of an element of the
negative of image of that element
f(-a)=-f(a) ˅ aЄR
We have
f(a)+f(-a)=f(a+(-a))
=f(0)
=0I [ by 1 ]
f(-a)=-f(a)
Theorem-3
If R is a commutative ring then RI is also a
commutative Ring
Let f(a),f(b) be any two elements of R I
Then a,b ЄR
We have
f(a).f(b)=f(ab)
=f(ba)
∴ RI is also commutative.
=f(b).f(a)
Theorem-4
If R is without zero divisors then RI is also
without zero divisors
f(0)=oI
∴ o is the only element of R whose image o
also f is one-one
is oI
Let f(a),f(b) be 2 non zero elements of RI.
f(a)= oI f(b)=0I ⇒ a=0 , b= 0
∴ R is without zero divisors.
a=0 b=0 ⇒ ab= 0
⇒ f(ab)=f(0)
⇒f(a).f(b)=0I
which implies RI without zero divisors.
Theorem-5
If R is with unity element then RI is also with
unit element
Let 1 be unit element of R
Then f(1) ЄRI
If f(a) is any element of RI
f(1).f(a)=f(1.a)
=f(a)
f(a)f(1)=f(a.1)
=f(a)
∴ f(1) is unit element of RI
Theorem-6
If R is a field then RI is also a field
If R is a field , then R is commutative with unit
element and each non zero element of R will
posses multiplicative inverse
Now as proved in 3 and 5 theorem
RI will be commutative , will also have the unit
element f(1)
Let f(a) be any non zero element of R I ,then
f(a)=0
a=0
⇒a-1 exists
f(a) ЄRI and we have
f(a-1) f(a) =f(a-1.a)
=f(1)
f(a).f(a-1) =f(a.a-1)
=f(1)
∴f(a-1) is the multiplicative inverse of f(a).
Hence RI is a field.
Ideal
A non empty subset I of ring R is called an
ideal of R if for all a,b ЄI and r ЄR
we have
(i) a-b ЄI
(ii) ar,ra ЄI
Theorem
Let R be a commutative ring with unity u
for any fixed a ЄR
Prove that aR={ar/r ЄR } is an ideal of R
a=au ЄaR ∴u ЄR
ar1 ,ar2 ЄaR then
ar1 –ar2 =a(r1 –r2)
a(r1-r2) ЄaR
ar1 ЄaR and r ЄR we have
r(ar1)=a(r1)r
=a(r1.r) ЄaR
Hence aR is an ideal of R.
Polynomial Rings
Let R be an arbitrary ring and let x call an
intermediate be any symbol not an element of R by a
polynomial in X ,over R is meant an expression of
the form
f(x)=a0x0 +a1x1+a2x2+...............
a0,a1,a2........are element of R also
a0x0 ,a1x1 are called terms of the polynomial.
a0,a1,a2,.......coefficients of these terms.
Set of all polynomial over a ring
Let R be an arbitrary ring and X an
intermediate . The set of all polynomials
f(x)=Σanxn = a0x0 +a1x1+..................
Where a’s are the element of ring R and only finite
number of them are not equal to zero is called
R[x]
Let f(x)=a0x0 +a1x1+..................
g(x)=b0x0 +b1x1+..................
be any two elements of R(x).
Theorem
If D is an integral domain then the polynomial
ring D[x] is also an integral domain
Proof:
Let D be a commutative ring without zero
divisors and with unity element 1
D[x] is also a ring to Prove that
D[x] is an integral domain , we should Prove
that
1) D[x] is commutative
2) Is without zero divisors
3) Posses unity element
D[x] is commutative
Let f(x)=a0+a1x+a2x2+......
g(x)=b0+b1x+b2x2 +...
Be any two elements of D[x]
If n is any non –ve integer , then the coeff of xn is
f(x)g(x)=
If 1 is a unity element of infinity then
The const polynomial 1+0x+0x2 +...
Is the unity element of D[x] we have
(a0+a1x+a2x2 +...)[1+0x+0x2 +....]
D[x] is without zero divisors
Let f(x)=a0+a1x+a2x2+..............+amxm am=0
g(x)=b0+b1x+b2x2+..............+bnxn
bn=0
Be two non zero elements of D[x]
Let f(x).g(x) cannot be a zero polynomial
The reason is that atleast one coeff. of f(x).g(x)
Namely ambn of xm+n not equal to zero
Because am ,bn are non zero elements of D and
D is without zero divisors
Hence D[x] is an integral Domain.
Well Ordering Principle
Every non empty subset of z+ contains a
smallest element.
Division Algorithm
If a,b ЄZ with b>0 there exist q,r ЄZ with
a=qb+r ; 0≤r≤b
If b divides a (b/a) the result follows.
r=0
Consider the case b doesnt divides a (b×a)
Let S={a-tb/t ЄZ , a-tb>0}
If a>0 and t=0 then a ЄS and S= φ
for a≤0 and t=a-1 then a-tb = a-(a-1)b
=a(1-b)+b
With (1-b)≤0.
Because b≥1
So a-tb>0 and S= φ
Hence for any a ЄZ S is a non empty subset
of Z+
By the well ordering principle S has a least
element r where 0<r=a-qb for some q ЄZ
If r=b then a=(q+1)b
and b divides a contradicting b×a.
If r>b then r=b+c
for some c ЄZ+ and
a-qb=r =b+c
c=a-(q+1)b ЄS
Contradicting r being the least element of
S.
Hence r<b this now establishes a quotient
θ and remainder r where 0≤r≤b
For the theorem.
Let q1,q2,r1,r2 ЄZ with
a=q1b+r1 ; 0≤r1≤b
a=q2b+r2 ; 0≤r2≤b
Then q1b+r1=q2b+r2
b|q1-q2| =|r2-r1|<b
Because 0≤r1r2≤b
If q1= q2 we have the contradiction
b|q1-q2|<b
Hence q1=q2 r1=r2 and a quotient and
remainder are unique.
Remainder Theorem
For f(x) ЄF(x) a ЄF , the remainder in the
division of f(x) by x-a is f(a).
From the division algorithm f(x)=q(x)(x-a)+r(x)
With r(x)=0 or degree of r(x)< degree(x-a) = hence
r(x)=r is an element of F
Substituting a for x f(a)=q(a)(a-a)+r(a)
=0+r(a)
f(a)=r
Factor Theorem
If f(x) ЄF(x) a ЄF then x-a is a factor
of f(x)
Iff a is a root of f(x).
If (x-a) is a factor of f(x) then
f(x)=q(x)(x-a)
f(a)=q(a)(a-a)=0
It follows that a is root of f(x).
Conversly, Suppose that a is root of f(x).
by division algorithm
∴f(a)=0 we have r=0
f(x)=q(x)(x-a)+r r ЄF
f(x)=q(x)(x-a) hence (x-a) is a factor of f(x)
1)If f(x)=x7-6x5+4x4-x2+3x-7 ЄQ[x]
If (x-2) is a factor check whether 2 is a root
f(2)=27-6.25 +4.24-22+6-7
=-5
∴ 2 is not root of f(x).
Reducable Polynomial
Let f(x) ЄF(x) with F a field and degree of
f(x)≥2
We call f(x) reducible. If there exist g(x),h(x)
ЄF(x)
Where f(x)=g(x).h(x) and each of g(x),h(x) has
degree greater or equal to 1. If f(x) is not
reducible it is called Irreducable/prime
Eg: f(x)=x2+1 Єq(x)
=(x+i)(x-i) not reducable
f(x)=x2+1 ЄC(x)
=(x+i)(x-i) is reducable
Euclidean Algorithm
Let f(x) g(x) ЄF(x) with degree F(x)<degree
g(x)
f(x)=[Link] the division algorithm
g(x)=q(x).f(x)+r(x) deg r(x)<deg f(x)
f(x)=q1(x)r(x)+r1(x) deg r1(x)<deg r(x)
r(x)=q2(x) r1(x)+r2(x) deg r2(x)<deg r1(x)
rk-2(x)=qk(x)rk+1(x)+rk(x)
deg rk (x) < deg rk-1(x)
rk-1(x)=qk+1 (x) rk(x) +rk+1(x)
deg rk+1(x) =0
Then rk (x) last non zero remainder is the
greatest common divisor (gcd) of f(x).g(x)
Def: If f(x)g(x) belongs to f(x) and gcd is one
then f(x) and g(x) are called relatively prime.
Kernal of Homomorphism
f: R →RI be a homomorphism of rings then the
kernal of f={a/a ЄR , f(a)=0 }
Theorem:
Let f: R →RI be a homomorphism of rings then f is
one to one iff ker f=0
Suppose f is one to one mapping and let k=kerf.
If a ЄK f(a)=0 =f(0)
⇒a=0 ( f is one to one)
Hence k=0 conversly
Suppose k=0 and let f(a)=f(b) a,b ЄR
f(a-b) = f(a)+f(-b)=f(a)-f(b) [f(a)=f(b)]
⇒a-b ЄK
⇒a-b=0
⇒a=b
Hence f is one to one
Theorem:
Let f: R →RI be a homomorphism of R into RI .
Then k=ker f is an ideal in R
Proof:
We have k=ker f ={x ЄR/f(x)=0}
Let a ЄK,b ЄK f(a)=0 f(b)=0
f(a-b)=f(a)-f(b) f is homomorphic
=0
⇒a-b ЄK thus a ЄK,b ЄK ⇒ a-b ЄK
hence K is subgroup of R under addition
Also any xЄR f(xa)=f(x).f(a)
=f(x).0=0
f(ax)=f(a).f(x)
=0.f(x)=0
xa ЄK and ax ЄK showing that K is ideal in R.
Polynomial over a Field
If F is a field then the set f(x) of all polynomials
over F is an integral domain
[Proof of every field is an integral domain]
Best of Luck!!!