MODULE 2 TRANSDUCERS

Module 2
Transducer Principles of operation, construction, theory, advantages and
disadvantages, applications of Resistive Transducers: Potentiometers, strain
gauges, (metallic and semi-conductor type), Resistance Thermometer,
Thermistors

Inductive Transducers: LVDT (Linear variable differential transformer).

Capacitive Transducers: various capacitive transducers based upon familiar
equation of capacitance (capacitive microphone)
Active Transducers: Thermocouple, Piezo-electric transducer, Hall Effect
transducer, Flow meter
A transducer is an electronic device that converts a physical force into an electrical
signal so that it can be easily handled and transmitted for measurement
Advantages of Electrical Transducers
The main advantages of electrical transducers (conversion of physical quantity into electrical quantities)
are as follows:
1. Electrical amplification and attenuation can be easily done.
2. Mass-inertia effects are minimised.
3. Effects of friction are minimised.
4. The output can be indicated and recorded remotely at a distance from the sensing medium.
5. The output can be modified to meet the requirements of the indicating or controlling units. The signal
magnitude can be related in terms of the voltage current. (The analog signal information can be converted
in to pulse or frequency information. Since output can be modified, modulated or amplified at will, the
output signal can be easily used for recording on any suitable multichannel recording device.)
6. The signal can be conditioned or mixed to obtain any combination with outputs of similar transducers
or control signals.
7. The electrical or electronic system can be controlled with a very small power level.
8. The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted and processed for the purpose of measurement.
 Classification of Electrical Transducers
1. active and passive transducers,
2. on the basis of transduction principle used
3. analog and digital transducers
4. primary and secondary transducers
5. transducer and inverse transducer
Active Transducers
• This are self generating type of transducers.
• These transducers develop an electrical parameter (i.e, voltage or current) which is
proportional to the quantity under measurement.
• These transducers do not require any external source or power for their operation.
Passive transducers
• Passive transducers do not generate any electrical signal by themselves.
• To obtain an electrical signal from such transducers, an external source of power is essential.
• Passive transducers depend upon the change in an electrical parameter (R, L, or C).
• They are also known as externally power driven transducers
E.g., LVDT, Strain gauge etc.
According to Transduction Principle
• Capacitive Transduction
• Electromagnetic Transduction
• Inductive Transduction
• Piezoelectric Transduction
• Photovoltaic Transduction
• Photoconductive Transduction
Analog and Digital Transducers
Analog Transducers
• These transducers convert the input quantity into an analog output which is a
continuous function of time.
E.g., strain gauge, LVDT, thermocouples or thermistors

Digital Transducers
• Digital transducers produce an electrical output in the form of pulses which forms an
unique code.
• Unique code is generated for each discrete value sensed.
• E.g., Shaft encoder, Proximity sensor
Primary or Secondary
• • It is the combination of two or more transducers for measurements

Transducer and Inverse Transducer

• Transducers convert non-electrical quantity into electrical quantity whereas
inverse transducer converts electrical quantity into non-electrical quantity.
• For example, microphone and loudspeaker
RESISTIVE TRANSDUCER
Resistive transducer works on the principle governed by
Resistive transducers are those in which the resistance changes
due to a change in some physical phenomenon.
The change in the value of the resistance with a change in the
length of the conductor can be used to measure displacement.
R= ρ L
Where,
R = Resistance in „Ω, A
ρ: the specific resistance of the conductor
material in ohm meters
L : length of conductor (meters)
A : area of conductor (m2)

Use:- the resistive transducer used for the measurement of linear and angular
displacement, and used for the temperature mechanical strain measurement.
RESISTIVE TRANSDUCER
Principle of operation
A change in resistance of a circuit due to the displacement of an object is the measure of
displacement of that object,.
Method of changing resistance-
• Length - Resistance can be changed varying the length of the conductor ,(linear and
rotary).
• Dimensions - When a metal conductor is subjected to mechanical strain, change in
dimensions of the conductor occurs, that changes the resistance of the conductor.
• Resistivity - When a metal conductor is subjected to a change in temperature and
change in resistivity occurs which changes resistance of the conductor.
• Resulting device:- Resistance potentiometers or sliding contact devices
displacements , Electrical resistance strain gauges. Thermistor and RTD
Type of resistive transducers is
Potentiometer Type – The change in resistance of a potentiometer reading due to the
movement of the slider as a part of an external force applied is known by its corresponding
pressure or displacement.
Strain Gauge – The change in value of resistance of metal semi-conductor due to elongation
or compression is known by the measurement of torque, displacement or force.
Resistance Thermometer – The change in resistance of metal wire due to the change in
temperature known by the measurement of temperature.
Resistance Hygrometer – The change in the resistance of conductive strip due to the change
of moisture content is known by the value of its corresponding humidity.
Hot Wire Meter – The change in resistance of a heating element due to convection cooling of
a flow of gas is known by its corresponding gas flow or pressure.
Thermistor – The change in resistance of a semi-conductor that has a negative co-efficient of
resistance is known by its corresponding measure of temperature.
Photoconductive Cell – The change in resistance of a cell due to a corresponding change in
light flux is known by its corresponding light intensity.
Potentiometer Type
• A potentiometer is a resistive sensor used to measure linear displacements as well as
rotary motion.
• In a potentiometer an electrically conductive wiper slides across a fixed resistive
element.
• A voltage is applied across the resistive element. Thus a voltage divider circuit is
formed.
• The output voltage(Vout) is measured
• The output voltage is proportional to the distance travelled.
• There are two types of potentiometer, linear and rotary potentiometer.
• The linear potentiometer has a slide or wiper.
• The rotary potentiometer can be a single turn or multi turn.
Types of Potentiometer:
Wire‐Wound type potentiometer
• The resistance range between 10Ω and 10M Ω
• The resistance increase in a stepwise manner.
• It is possible to construct potentiometers with 100 –200 turns per cm length (The
resolution range between 0.1 to 0.05 mm).
• Linear potentiometers are available in many lengths up to 1m.
• Helical potentiometers are commercially available with 50 to 60 turns (The angular
displacement is between 18000 – 21600 degree)
• Potentiometer life exceed 1 million cycles.
Thin film type potentiometer
• Higher resolution.
• Lower noise.
• Longer life (exceed 10 million cycles)
• Resistance of 50 to 100 Ω/mm can be obtained with conductive plastic film.
• Commercially available resolution is 0.001 mm.
Applications of the potentiometer are
•Linear displacement measurement
•Rotary displacement measurement
•Volume control
•Brightness control
•Liquid level measurements using float
Advantages of the potentiometer are
•Easy to use
•low cost
•High amplitude output
•Proven technology
•Easily available
Disadvantages of the potentiometer are
•Since the wiper is sliding across the resistive element there is a possibility of friction and
wear. Hence the number of operating cycles are limited.
•Limited bandwidth
•Inertial loading
 Resistance Thermometer
The resistance thermometer is an instrument used to measure electrical resistance in
terms of temperature,
The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed.
This property is utilised for the measurement of temperature
The main part of a resistance thermometer is its sensing element.
The characteristics of the sensing element determines the sensitivity and operating
temperature range of the instrument.
There are three common types of temperature sensitive resistive elements in use,
1. The wire wound resistance,
2. The thermistor and the
3. PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) semiconductor resistance.
The sensing element may be any material that exhibits a relatively large resistance
change with change in temperature.
• The material used should be stable in its characteristics, (i.e. neither its resistance nor
its temperature coefficient of resistance should undergo permanent change with use or
age.)
• To maintain the calibration of a resistance thermometer, it is necessary to consider its
stability.
• The need for stability frequently limits the temperature range over which the sensing
element may be used.
• Another desirable characteristic for a sensing element is a linear change in resistance
with change in temperature.
• smaller a given sensing element, the less heat required to raise its temperature, and the
faster its response.
• Platinum, nickel and copper are the metals most commonly used to measure
temperature.
• The resistivity of platinum tends to increase less rapidly at higher temperatures than
for other metals, it is a commonly used material for resistance thermometers.
• The temperature range over which platinum has stability is – 260–1100°C.
• The changes in resistance caused by changes in temperature are detected by a
Wheatstone bridge,
• The temperature sensing element, which may be nickel, copper or platinum contained
in a bulb or well, along with the balancing bridge, form the essential components of a
temperature measuring system
• The sensing element Rs is made of a material having a high temperature coefficient,
• R1, R2, and R5 are made of resistances that are practically constant under normal
temperature changes.
• When no current flows through the galvanometer, principle of Wheatstone’s bridge
states the ratio of resistance is

• The sensing element is away from the indicator, and its leads have a resistance, say R3,
R4. So Rs = R3+ R4+ Rs so above equation become

• Now it resistance Rs changes, balance cannot be maintained and the galvanometer

shows a deflection, which can be calibrated to give a suitable temperature scale.
Advantages of Resistance Thermometers
1. The measurement is very accurate.
2. It has a lot of flexibility with regard to choice of measuring equipment.
3. Indicators, recorders or controllers can also be operated.
4. More than one resistance element can be clubbed to the same indicating/recording instrument.
5. The temperature sensitive resistance element can be easily installed and replaced.
6. The accuracy of the measuring circuit can be easily checked by substituting a standard resistor for the
resistive element.
7. Resistive elements can be used to measure differential temperature.
8. Resistance thermometers have a wide working range without loss of accuracy, and can be used for
temperature ranges (–200°C to + 650°C).
9. They are best suited for remote indication.
10. The resistive element response time is of the order of 2 to 10s
11. The limits of error of a resistive element are ± 0.25% of the scale reading.
12. The size of the resistive element may be about 6 – 12 mm in diameter and 12 – 75 mm in length.
13. Extremely accurate temperature sensing.
14. No necessity of temperature compensation.
15. Stability of performance over long periods of time.
Limitations of Resistance Thermometer
1. High cost
2. Need for bridge circuit and power source
3. Possibility of self-heating
4. Large bulb size, compared to a thermocouple
THERMISTOR
• Thermistor (THERMally sensitive resISTOR) are non-metallic resistors
(semiconductor material),
• Made by sintering mixtures of metallic oxides such as manganese, nickel, cobalt,
copper and uranium.
• Thermistors have a Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC), resistance decreases
as temperature rises.
• The resistance at room temperature (25°C) for typical commercial units ranges from
100 ohm to 10 Mohm
• They are suitable for use only up to about 800°C.
• In some cases, the resistance of thermistors at room temperature may decrease by
5% for each 1°C rise in temperature.
• This high sensitivity to temperature changes makes the thermistor extremely useful
for precision temperature measurements, control and compensation
• Thermistors are non-linear devices over a temperature range, although now units
with better than 0.2% linearity over the 0–100°C temperature range are available.
• The typical sensitivity of a thermistor is approximately 3 mV/°C at 200°C.
BEADS
• The smallest thermistors are made in the form of beads.
• Some are as small as 0.15 mm (0.006 in.) in diameter.
• These may come in a glass coating or sealed in the tip of solid glass probes.
• Glass probes have a diameter of about 2.5 mm and a length which varies from 6 – 50
mm.
• The probes are used for measuring the temperature of liquids. The resistance ranges
from 300 W to 100 MW.
DISC
• Disc thermistors about 10 mm in diameter, either self supporting or mounted on a small
plate, are mainly used for temperature control.
• These thermistors are made by pressing themistors material under several tons of
pressure in a round die to produce flat pieces 1.25 – 25 mm in diameter and 0.25 – 0.75
mm thick,
• having resistance values of 1 ohm to 1 Mohm.
• These are sintered and coated with silver on two flat surfaces.
WASHER THERMISTORS
• Washer thermistors are made like disc thermistors, except that a hole is formed in the centre in order
to make them suitable for mounting on a bolt.
• Rod thermistors are extruded through dies to make long cylindrical units of 1.25,2.75, and 4.25 mm
in diameter and 12.5 – 50 mm long.
• Leads are attached to the end of the rods.
• Their resistance usually varies from 1 – 50 kW.
ROD THERMISTORS
• The advantage of rod thermistors over other configurations is the ability to produce high resistance
units with moderately high power handling capability.
• Thermistors can be connected in series/parallel combinations for applications requiring increased
power handling capability.
• High resistance units find application in measurements that employ low lead wires or cables.
• Thermistors are chemically stable and can be used in nuclear environments.
• Their wide range of characteristics also permits them to be used in limiting and regulation circuits, as
time delays, for integration of power pulses, and as memory units.
Advantages of Thermistor
1. Small size and low cost.
2. Fast response over narrow temperature range.
3. Good sensitivity in the NTC region.
4. Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence of resistance on
absolute temperature.
5. Contact and lead resistance problems not encountered due to large Rth (resistance).
Limitations of Thermistor
1. Non-linearity in resistance vs temperature characteristics.
2. Unsuitable for wide temperature range.
3. Very low excitation current to avoid self-heating.
4. Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc. due to high resistance.
 STRAIN GAUGE
• Strain gage is one of the most popular types of secondary and passive
transducer
• It can be used for measurement of force, weight , torque, pressure, acceleration
and displacement
• The basic principle of operation is when strain is applied to a thin metallic wire,
its dimension changes, thus changing the resistance of the wire. Let us first
investigate what are the factors, responsible for the change in resistance.
• Mainlly two type of starin gage
• Metallic type
• Semiconductor type
Metallic Strain Gage
Most of the strain gages are metallic type.
They can be of two types: unbonded and bonded.
Unbonded Type
The unbonded strain gage is normally used for measuring strain (or displacement)
between a fixed and a moving structure by fixing four metallic wires in such a way that
two are in compression and two are in tension,
 Bonded type
• The construction of a bonded strain gauge (see figure) shows a fine wire element
looped back and forth on a mounting plate, which is usually cemented to the
member undergoing stress. A tensile stress tends to elongate the wire and thereby
increase its length and decrease its cross-sectional area.
• Most commonly used bonded strain gages are metal foil type.
• The metal foil type strain gage is manufactured by photo-etching technique. Here the
thin strips of the foil are the active elements of the strain gage, while the thick ones
are for providing electrical connections.

• Because of large area of the thick portion, their

resistance is small and they do not contribute to any
change in resistance due to strain, but increase the
heat dissipation area. Also it is easier to connect the
lead wires with the strain gage.
• The strain gage in fig. 6(b) can measure strain in
one direction only
• if we want to measure the strain in two or more directions at the same point
• Use the strain gage rosette,
• Which is manufactured by stacking multiple strain gages in different directions, is
used.
• Fig shows a three element strain gage rosette stacked at 45 .
Semiconductor type or piezoresistive strain gauge
• Semiconductor type strain gage is made of a thin wire of silicon, typically 0.005 inch
to 0.0005 inch, and length 0.05 inch to 0.5 inch.
• its greater sensitivity when compared to a metallic strain gauge
• The disadvantage is the nonlinear output versus strain, the temperature
dependence of the gauge sensitivity
• it is generally more expensive than metal gauges
The behavior of a semiconductor gauge can be described by the following
relationships:
ΔR/R0 = (T0/T) (F0) ɛ + (T0/T)2 (C0) e2
where ɛ is the strain, T0 is the reference temperature (generally 298 Kelvin), T is the
temperature, R0 is the resistance at the reference temperature, Δ R is the change in
gage resistance, F0 is the gage factor
• Two types: p-type and n-type.
• In P-Type the resistance increases with positive strain,
• In n-type the resistance decreases with temperature
Advantages of Semiconductor Strain Gauge
1. Semiconductor strain gauges have a high gauge factor of about + 130. This allows
measurement of very small strains, of the order of 0.01 micro strain.
2. Hysteresis characteristics of semiconductor strain gauges are excellent,
i.e. less than 0.05%.
3. Life in excess of 10 ¥ 106 operations and a frequency response of 1012 Hz.
4. Semiconductor strain gauges can be very small in size, ranging in length from 0.7 to
7.0 mm.
Disadvantages
1. They are very sensitive to changes in temperature.
2. Linearity of semiconductor strain gauges is poor.
3. They are more expensive.
Gage Factor of strain gage
In general
R= ρL
A
Where
ρ: the specific resistance of the conductor material in ohm meters
L : length of conductor (meters)
A : area of conductor (m2)
As consequence of strain, 2 physical qualities are particular interest:
1) The change in gauge resistance
2) The change in length
•The relationship between these two variables called gauge factor, G f
 Gage Factor and its derivation
The term Gage Factor is used to characterize the performance of a strain gage
• Gauge factor is the ratio of percentage change in resistance to percentage change
in length of the strain gauge , Gf

Where
• Gf = the gauge factor
•R=the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)
•∆R= the change in initial resistance in ohms
•L= the initial length in meters (without strain)
•∆L=the change in initial length in meters
Since strain is defined as the change in length divided by the original length,
strain in the lateral direction σ
• Above Eq. can be written as
The Gage Factor is also expressed as
Where v= Poisson ratio
ie ratio between lateral strain to longitudinal strain of the conducting wire
Lateral strain = parallel to the surface
Longitudinal strain = perpendicular to surface
The Gage Factor of metallic strain gages varies in the range 1.8 to 2.6.
The semiconductor type strain gages have a very large Gage Factor, in the range of 100-
150.
Alloys used for commercial metallic strain gage are:
• Advance (55% Cu, 45% Ni): Gage Factor between 2.0 to 2.2
• Nichrome (80% Ni, 20% Co): Gage Factor between 2.2 to 2.5
 INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCER
Inductive transducers may be either of the self generating or passive type.
The self generating type utilises the basic electrical generator principle, i.e, a motion
between a conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor (generator
action).
This relative motion between the field and the conductor is supplied by changes in the
measurand.
An inductive electromechanical transducer is a device that converts physical motion
(position change) into a change in inductance.
Transducers of variable inductance type work upon one of the following principles:
1. Change of self inductance
2. Change of mutual inductance
3. Production of eddy current

Particularly inductive transducer is used for the detection of type of metal, finding
missing parts or counting the number of objects.
Change of Self Inductance of Inductive Transducer
Self inductance of a coil is given by

Where, N = number of turns.

R = reluctance of the magnetic circuit.

Also we know that reluctance R is given by

where μ = effective permeability of the medium in and around the coil.

So

Where, G = A/l and called geometric form factor.

A = area of cross-section of coil.
l = length of the coil.
So, we can vary self inductance by
•Change in number of turns, N,
•Changing geometric configuration, G,
•Changing permeability

if the displacement is to be measured by the inductive transducers, it should change

any of the above parameter for causing in the change in self inductance.
[Link] of Mutual Inductance of Inductive Transducer
• Here transducers, which work on change of mutual inductance principle, use
multiple coils.
• two coils have their self inductance denoted as L1 and L2.
• Mutual inductance between these two coils is given by

• Thus mutual inductance can be changed by varying self inductance or by varying

coefficient of coupling, K.
• Now coefficient of coupling depends on the distance and orientation between two
coils.
• Thus for the measurement of displacement we can fix one coil and make other
movable which moves with the source whose displacement is to be measured.
• With the change in distance in displacement coefficient of coupling changes and it
causes the change in mutual inductance. This change in mutual inductance can be
calibrated with the displacement and measurement can be done.
Inductive transducers are mainly used for the measurement of displacement.
The displacement to be measured is arranged to cause variation in any of
three variables:

1. Number of turns
2. Geometric configuration
3. Permeability of the magnetic material or magnetic circuits
 Linear variable differenial transformer (LVDT)
It consists basically of a primary winding and
two secondary windings, wound over a hollow
tube and positioned so the primary winding is
between two secondary. In figure shows the
construction of the LVDT.
.An iron core slides within the tube and therefore
affects the magnet coupling between the
primary and the two secondary.
When the core is in the centre, voltage induced
in the two secondary is equal.
When the core is moved in one direction from
centre, the voltage induced in one winding is
increased and that in the other is decreased.
Movement in the opposite direction reverses this
effect
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)
Advantages of LVDT
High Range - The LVDTs have a very high range for measurement of [Link] can
used for measurement of displacements ranging from 1.25mm to 250mm
No Frictional Losses - As the core moves inside a hollow former so there is no loss of
displacement input as frictional loss so it makes LVDT as very accurate device.
High Input and High Sensitivity - The output of LVDT is so high that it doesn’t need any
amplification. The transducer possesses a high sensitivity which is typically about 40V/mm.
Low Hysteresis - LVDTs show a low hysteresis and hence repeatability is excellent under all
conditions
Low Power Consumption - The power is about 1W which is very as compared to other
transducers.
Direct Conversion to Electrical Signals - They convert the linear displacement to electrical
voltage which are easy to process
Disadvantages of LVDT
LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so they always require a setup to protect
them from stray magnetic fields.
They are affected by vibrations and temperature.

Applications of LVDT
They are used in applications where displacements ranging from fraction of mm to few
cm are to be measured. The LVDT acting as a primary Transducer converts the
displacement to electrical signal directly.
They can also acts as the secondary transducers.
E.g. the Bourbon tube which acts as a primary transducer and covert pressure into linear
[Link] LVDT coverts this displacement into electrical signal which after
calibration gives the ideas of the pressure of fluid.
 Capacitive Transducers
• A capacitor consists of two conductors (plates) that are electrically isolated from one another by a
nonconductor (dielectric).
• When the two conductors are at different potentials (voltages), the system is capable of storing an
electric charge.
• The storage capability of a capacitor is measured in farads.
• A linear change in capacitance with changes in the physical position of the moving
element may be used to provide an electrical indication of the element’s position.
• The principle of operation of capacitive transducers is based upon the equation for capacitance of
a parallel plate capacitor

• C= KA/d
Where, A = Overlapping area of plates; m 2,
d = Distance between two plates; m,
K= Permittivity (dielectric constant); F/m.
C= Resultant capacitance
capacitance increases
(i) if the effective area of the plate is increased, and
(ii) if the material has a high dielectric constant.
The capacitance is reduced
• if the spacing between the plates is increased.
Transducers which make use of these three methods of varying capacitance,have been
developed.
• Some capacitive dielectrics are temperature sensitive, so temperature variations
should be minimised for accurate measurements.
• A variable plate area transducer is made up of a fixed plate called Stator and a
movable plate called the Rotor
• The capacitance is measured with a bridge circuits.
• The output impedance Z of a capacitive transducer is:
• Z = 1/2πfC
• Where: Z = Impedance
• f = frequency, 50 Hz.
• C = capacitance
• In general, the output impedance of a capacitive transducer is high.
• This fact calls for a careful design of the output circuitry.
• The capacitive transducers work on the principle of change in capacitance of the
capacitor.
• This change in capacitance could be caused by change in overlapping area A of the
plates, change in the distance d between the plates and change in dielectric constant
• In most of the cases the above changes are caused by the physical variables, such as,
displacement, force or pressure.
• Variation in capacitance is also there when the dielectric medium between the plates
changes, as in the case of measurement of liquid or gas levels.
• Therefore, the capacitive transducers are commonly used for measurement of linear
displacement, by employing the following effects as shown in Fig a and fig b.
• Change in capacitance due to change in overlapping area of plates.
• Change in capacitance due to change in distance between the two plates.
• Change in capacitance due to change in dielectric between the two plates
• Fig.a Variable capacitive transducer varies; (a) area of overlap, (b) distance between
plates, (c) amount of dielectric between plates
• Fig.b Differential capacitive transducer varies capacitance ratio by changing: (a) area
of overlap, (b) distance between plates, (c) dielectric between plates
• As may be seen in Fig b, all of the differential devices have three wire connections
rather than two: one wire for each of the end plates and one for the common plate.
• As the capacitance between one of the endplates and the common plate changes, the
capacitance between the other end plate and the common plate also changes in the
opposite direction
• a device is used to detect the amount of roll in an
aircraft.
• As the aircraft rolls to the left, the plates moves to the
relative position shown by dashed lines
• The capacitance decreases by an amount proportional
to the degree of roll.
• Similarly to the right. In this case the stator, securely
attached to the aircraft, is the moving element.
• The weight on the rotor keeps its position fixed with
reference to the surface of the earth, but the relative
position of the plates changes and this is the factor
that determines the capacitance of the unit.
• Capacitive pressure transducer that makes use of the variation in capacitance
resulting from a change in spacing between the plates.
• This particular transducer is designed to measure pressure (in vacuum).
• Enclosed in an airtight container is a metallic diaphragm which moves to the left
when pressure is applied to the chamber and to the right when vacuum is applied.
• This diaphragm is used as one plate of a variable capacitor.
• Its distance from the stationary plate to its left, as determined by the pressure applied
to the unit, determines the capacitance between the two plates.
• The monitor indicates the pressure equivalent of the unit’s capacitance by measuring
the capacitor’s reactance to the ac source voltage.
• Changes in pressure may be easily detected by the variation of capacity between a
fixed plate and another plate free to move as the pressure changes.
• The resulting variation follows the basic capacity formula.
Capacitor microphone operation
• As the name implies the condenser or capacitor microphone relies on changes in
capacitance for its operation.
• The actual condenser microphone element consists of a thin membrane in close
proximity to a solid metal plate.
• The membrane acts as the diaphragm and is electrically conductive.
• Older microphones used a thin metal foil but more modern types may use a plastic
coated with gold or aluminium.
• One common type is gold-sputtered mylar.
• This construction creates a capacitor which may be in the region of 10 to 50pF.
• For the condenser microphone to operate it requires a DC voltage to be applied.
• This can be supplied by the battery shown, but for high end microphones it may also
be supplied along the coaxial line to the microphone – this is known as phantom
power.
• The most common voltage this is 48volts.
• This voltage not only provides the voltage
needed for the microphone to operate
electrically but also pulls the diaphragm taut.
• When sound waves hit the microphone, the
diaphragm moves backwards and forwards.
• This changes the level of capacitance and as a
result small voltage changes are seen across a
high load resistor connected across the
microphone element. .
• As the impedance of the condenser
microphone is very high, a buffer amplifier is
needed.
• This has the effect of converting the signal so
that it has a much lower impedance.
• This amplifier is also powered either from the
internal battery or from the phantom power
line.
 Active Transducers
• This are self generating type of transducers.
• These transducers develop an electrical parameter (i.e,
voltage or current) which is proportional to the quantity under
measurement.
• These transducers do not require any external source or
power for their operation.
PIEZO ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCER
• A symmetrical crystalline materials such as Quartz, Rochelle salt and Barium
titanate produce an emf when they are placed under stress.
• This property is used in piezo electric transducers, where a crystal is placed between
a solid base and the force-summing member
• An externally applied force, entering the transducer through its pressure port,
applies pressure to the top of a crystal.
• This produces an emf across the crystal proportional to the magnitude of applied
pressure.
The basic expression for output voltage E is given by
E= Q / Cp

where Q = generated charge

Cp = shunt capacitances
• This transducer is inherently a dynamic responding sensor and does not readily
measure static conditions. (Since it is a high impedance element, it requires careful
shielding and compensation.)
• For a piezo electric element under pressure, part of the energy is converted to an
electric potential that appears on opposite faces of the element, analogous to a
charge on the plates of a capacitor.
• The rest of the applied energy is converted to mechanical energy, analogous to a
compressed spring.
• When the pressure is removed, it returns to its original shape and loses its electric
charge
coupling coefficient
K. = (Mechanical energy converted to electrical energy)/ (Applied mechanical energy)
Or
K=(Electrical energy converted to mechanical energy) / (Applied electrical energy)

• An alternating voltage applied to a crystal causes it to vibrate at its natural

resonance frequency.
• Since the frequency is a very stable quantity, piezo electric crystals are principally
used in HF accelerometers.
• Since the transducer has a very good HF response, its principal use is in HF
accelerometers.
• In this application, its output voltage is typically of the order of 1 – 30 mV per gm
of acceleration.
• The device needs no external power source and is therefore self generating.

The disadvantage
• it cannot measure static conditions.
• The output voltage is also affected by temperature variation of the crystal
• voltage will be generated as long as the pressure applied to the piezo electric
element changes
Thermocouple
• The thermocouple (TC) is a temperature transducer that develops an emf that is a
function of the temperature difference between its hot and cold junctions.
• One of the most commonly used methods of measurement of moderately high
temperature is the thermocouple effect.
• Temperature measurement with Thermocouple is based on the Seebeck effect.
• When a pair of wires made up of different metals is joined together at one end, a
temperature difference between the two ends of the wire produces a voltage
between the two wires
• The magnitude of this voltage depends on the material used for the wires and the
amount of temperature difference between the joined ends and the other ends.
• A current will circulate around a loop made up of two dissimilar metal when the two
junctions are at different temperatures
• The junction of the wires of the thermocouple is called the sensing junction or hot
junction
• this junction is normally placed in or on the unit under test and the other ends of the
wire are connected to the voltage measuring equipment
• The temperature difference between the sensing junction and the other ends are
either kept at a constant reference temperature called as the cold junction.
• When a temperature difference exists between the sensing junction and the
reference junction, an emf is produced, which causes current in the circuit.
• When the reference end is terminated by a meter or a recording device, the meter
indication will be proportional to the temperature difference between the hot
junction and the reference junction.
• series of thermos couple connected together is called a thermopile .
• Thermocouples must be protected from mechanical damage and isolated from
corrosive or contaminating effect that most gases and liquids have at high temperature.
• The device used for this purpose are called wells or tubes depending upon their
physical construction or thermos wells.
• Thermocouples are made from a number of different metal alloys, covering a wide
range of temperature from as low as –270 °C (–418 °F) to as high as 2700 °C (about
5000 °F).
• They may be obtained in a simple uninsulated wire form, in insulated form or inside
protective sheaths or probes (sheath diameter as small as 0.25 mm).
• The thermo-junction is protected from contamination from the process materials by
enclosing it in a protective sheath.
• For example, a cupro-nickel sheath for copper/chromel thermocouple and mild sheath
for iron/chromel thermocouples.
• The temperature ranges covered by thermocouples make them appropriate for use in
industrial furnaces as well as for measurement in the cryogenic range
Different types of thermocouples
Advantages of Thermocouple
1. It has rugged construction. (capable of withstanding overload)
2. It has a temperature range from –270 °C–2700 °C.
3. Using extension leads and compensating cables, long distances
transmission for temperature measurement is possible.
4. Bridge circuits are not required for temperature measurement.
5. Comparatively cheaper in cost.
6. Calibration checks can be easily performed.
7. Thermocouples offer good reproducibility.
8. Speed of response is high compared to the fi lled system thermometer.
Disadvantages of Thermocouple
1. Cold junction and other compensation is essential for accurate measurements.
2. They exhibit non-linearity in the emf versus temperature characteristics.
3. To avoid stray electrical signal pickup, proper separation of extension leads from
thermocouple wire is essential.
4. Stray voltage pick-up are possible.
5. In many applications, the signals need to be amplified.
 Hall Effect Transducer
• A Hall effect transducer or Hall sensor is a type of solid-state sensor used to measure the strength of
a magnetic field.
• It operates on the Hall effect, which is a physical phenomenon discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.
• The Hall effect occurs when an electric current flows through a conductor or semiconductor
material placed in a magnetic field, resulting in a voltage difference across the material
perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field.
• This voltage difference is called the Hall voltage and is proportional to the strength of the magnetic
field.
• The principle of working of a Hall Effect Transducer is that if a strip of conducting material carries
a current in the presence of a transverse magnetic field a difference of potential is produced between
the opposite edges of the conductor.
• The magnitude of the voltage depends upon the current, the strength of magnetic field and the
property of the conductor called Hall Effect.
• The Hall effect is present in metals and semiconductors in varying amounts, depending upon the
densities and mobility of carriers.
Current is passed through leads 1 and 2 of the strip.
The output leads connected to edges 3 and 4 are at the same
potential when there is no transverse magnetic field passing through
the strip.
When a transverse magnetic filed passes through the strip, an output
voltage appears across the output leads.
This voltage is proportional to the current and the field strength.
The o/p voltage is

where KH = Hall effect coefficient

I = current in ampere
B = flux density in Wb/m.
Thus the voltage produced may be used for measurement of either
the current I or the magnetic field strength B.
• The Hall effect emf is very small in conductors and is difficult to
measure.
• But in some semiconductors, such as germanium, the emf
Produced is sufficiently large to be measured by a sensitive
moving coil instrument.
Applications:

[Link] Field Measurement: Hall effect transducers are commonly used to

measure magnetic fields. They are used in applications such as magnetometers and
compasses.
[Link] Sensing: Hall effect sensors can be used to measure electric current. When
the current-carrying conductor passes through the sensor's magnetic field, it produces a
Hall voltage that is proportional to the current.
[Link] Sensing: Hall sensors are often used in proximity switches, door position
sensors, and other applications where the presence or absence of a magnetic field needs
to be detected.
[Link] Sensing: Hall effect sensors can be used to measure the speed of rotating
machinery, such as the speed of a vehicle's wheels, by detecting the passage of a toothed
wheel or a magnetic strip.
[Link] Sensing: They are used in applications where the position of an object or a
component needs to be determined, such as in automotive throttle position sensors.
Advantages:
•Hall effect transducers are solid-state devices, which means they have no moving parts,
making them durable and reliable.
•They are highly sensitive to magnetic fields and can provide accurate measurements.
•They have a fast response time, making them suitable for dynamic applications.
Disadvantages:
•Hall sensors can be affected by temperature variations. Calibrations may be necessary
to account for temperature drift.
•They are sensitive to mechanical stress, which can affect their accuracy.
•Hall effect sensors typically have limited sensing ranges and may not work for
extremely strong or extremely weak magnetic fields.
In summary, Hall effect transducers are versatile sensors used for various applications
involving the measurement of magnetic fields, current, speed, and proximity. They are
popular in both consumer and industrial applications due to their reliability and
sensitivity.
 Flow-meters.
• The measurement of flow is acquiring flow rate or quantity
measurement is important in determination of proportions of
the materials flowing in or out of a process.
• Applications of flow measurement are found in water or gas
service meters or in the gasoline pumping stations.
1, Turbine Flow-meters.
The turbine flow-meter is the most highly developed non-friction displacement-type of
mechanical flow-meter.
When an axially-mounted freely rotating rotor (turbine wheel) is placed in the path of a
fluid stream, the flowing fluid impinging on the rotor blades, imparts a force on the
blade surfaces and sets the rotor in motion with an angular velocity proportional to the
flow-rate of the fluid.
When a steady to the rotational speed is reached, the rotary speed attained is
proportional volumetric flow-rate of the fluid.
The device can be designed to give a linear output (speed linearly proportional to flow-
rate) by reducing the bearing friction and other losses to a minimum.
Thus a speed measurement allows a flow-rate measurement.
The speed can be measured simply and with great accuracy by counting the rate at
which turbine blades pass a given point with the help of a magnetic proximity pickup
which generates voltage pulses.
Flow-rate of fluid can be measured by feeding the pulses
generated by the magnetic pickup to an electronic pulse-rate
meter and total flow can be determined by accumulating the total
number of pulses during a time interval.
These measurements can be carried out very accurately because
of their digital nature. Analog voltage signal can be obtained by
feeding the pulses to a frequency-to-voltage converter, if desired.
The turbine flow-meter essentially consists of a precision turbine
wheel (rotor) mounted on bearings inside a length of pipe and an
electromagnetic coil, called the magnetic pickup, mounted on the
wall of the pipe at right angle to the turbine wheel.

The most serious drawback of such meters is their susceptibility to damage with particles suspended in the
fluid, and any damage to the blade requires recalibration.
Also there should be at least a 15 times the diameter length straight pipe upstream to the meter, to have the
required flow pattern.
These are expensive and useful for fluids in a limited viscosity range.
Calibration gets affected because of variations in viscosity at low flow-rates
2. Electromagnetic Flow-meters.
The operation of electromagnetic flow- meters is based on Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction,
which states that an emf of e volts is induced in a conductor of length l meters when it
moves with a transverse velocity of v m/s across a magnetic field of strength B Wb/m^2
and the induced emf in the conductor is given by the expression
e= Blv volts
Since the voltage induced depends on the rate at which the conductor moves through the
magnetic field, the magnitude of voltage induced can be used as an indication of the
flow-rate of liquid.
The main advantages of the electromagnetic flow-meter are that
• it does not obstruct the flow in any way that may cause pressure drops,
• it has no moving part that may cause friction,
• it is insensitive to viscosity, density, and flow disturbances
 • It consists of a tube of non-conducting
material with two electrodes mounted
opposite each other on the tube wall.
• The ends of the electrodes are in contact with
the fluid flowing in the tube.
• Surrounding the tube there is a magnet with its
field at right angles to the electrodes.
• As the conductive fluid flows through the
insulated tube through the magnetic field, a
voltage is induced across the electrodes.
The voltage induced across the electrodes varies directly in proportion to
a) the magnetic field strength, B b) the distance between the electrodes, d
c) the average velocity of the conductive fluid flowing through the non-conductive tube.
Thus, if the magnetic field strength B and the distance between the electrodes d are kept constant the
voltage induced will be directly proportional to the flow-rate of the flowing fluid.
This induced voltage is then amplified and connected to a suitable indicating or recording instrument.
[Link] or Acoustic Flow-meters.
An ultrasonic or acoustic flow-meter consists of two piezoelectric crystals in the liquid
or gas separated by a distance.
One of the crystal acts as a transmitter and the other as a receiver.
These flow meters are of two types depending upon the principle on which they
operate.
The first one operates on the basis of measurement of phase shift between oscillations
directed downstream and upstream alternately
The second one operates on the basis of measurement of separation of frequency of
oscillations directed downstream and upstream simultaneously.
• Two piezo-crystals A and B working both as transmitter
and receiver of ultrasonic signals alternately are mounted
• so that the ultrasonic signals are transmitted between them,
as well as through the liquid.
• An oscillator supplies alternately A or B through the
switch S when the detector is connected simultaneously to
B or A respectively.
• The detector is a phase sensitive device which measures
the transit time from upstream to down stream and vice-
versa.
• If C is the velocity of sound propagation in medium in m/s,
v is the linear velocity of fluid flow in m/s and d is the
distance in meters between the two piezo-crystals A and B.
• The transit time in the direction of flow (i.e., from
upstream to down stream)

• The transit time when the ultrasonic FLUID signal is

travelling in the opposite direction of fluid flow