Topic 1
Introduction
1
2 Learning objectives
By the end of this topic, the learners should be able to;
Define soil, pedology, pedon, ped, pedogenesis, and soil classification.
Explain the concept of soil genesis and the factors responsible for soil
formation.
Describe the soil profile, including the identification of soil horizons and the
solum.
Identify and explain the solid, liquid, gaseous, and mineral components of
soil.
Distinguish between technical and natural soil classification approaches.
Describe the general principles of natural soil classification systems.
Summarize the historical development of soil classification, including key
contributors.
Explain the principles and rationale behind the Soil Taxonomy and its focus
on soil properties.
3 Soil Genesis and Classification
Soil Genesis (Pedogenesis): Soil genesis is the science that deals with the formation of soil peds
and may be referred to as pedogenesis.
It is the study of the origin of soils with special reference to processes and factors responsible for their
development from unconsolidated parent material.
It is part of pedology that includes the study of soil genesis, classification and mapping, and the physical,
chemical, biological and fertility properties of soils in relation to their formation.
Soil Classification: Soil classification is the logical grouping of soils based upon their properties
and characteristics.
To study and understand the genesis and classify soil, it is necessary to make an inventory of this source.
The process of making this inventory is called soil survey and mapping.
Soil survey concerns constructing a mental picture of the soils’ distribution on the earth’s surface through a
morphological examination, description and mapping.
Contribution of Pedology: Pedology therefore makes a fundamental contribution to the
understanding of different soils, their nature, properties and geographic distribution on the
landscape.
This is necessary for developing rational land-use plans.
4 Soil
Soil lies at the interface between the atmosphere and lithosphere
(mantle of rocks forming Earth’s crust).
It also interacts with the hydrosphere (surface water, groundwater, and
oceans).
Because soil sustains the growth of plants and animals, it forms part of
the biosphere.
5
Soil Formation and Nature
Soil formation
Soil develops through a combination of physical, chemical, and biotic forces
acting on organic matter and weathered rock fragments.
These processes create a porous fabric that contains both water and air — this
zone is called the pedosphere.
Soil is therefore considered a natural body of mineral and organic material formed
in response to environmental factors and processes that continuously change it.
Definitions of Soil
Agriculturalists’ View: Soil is the weathered uppermost layer of the earth’s
surface in which plants anchor their roots and obtain water and nutrients for growth.
Geologists’ View: Soil is all material on the earth’s surface formed in-situ,
regardless of depth or use.
Importance of Soil and
6
Applications of Pedology & Soil
Importance of Soil Surveys
Essential for cultivation and agricultural production.
Soil fertility and productivity are key to food security.
Pedological knowledge supports land evaluation, distinguishing between fertile,
productive soils and less valuable soils.
Since soils are integral to landscapes, knowing their distribution is crucial for
environmental quality preservation.
Applications of Pedology & Soil Surveys
Helps design site-specific management by identifying soil characteristics.
Identifies critical sites such as shallow hillslope soils that are prone to erosion and
nutrient leaching.
Provides basic data for soil conservation planning.
Supplies inputs for equations predicting soil loss and water pollution under
different management practices.
7 Definition of key terms
Pedology: The interpretation, mapping, and classification of soil based on
soil genesis.
Pedon: A pedon is the smallest volume that can be recognized as a soil
individual.
Ped: Peds are soil aggregates which are recognizable in the field because
they are separated by voids and natural planes of weakness.
Pedogenesis: The process of soil formation as the integral result of the
combination of soil forming factors (climate, parent material, relief,
organisms, time).
Soil classification: The grouping of different soils into classes on the
basis of one or more criteria.
8 Soil Profiles
The vertical dimension, exposed by excavation from the surface to the
parent material, constitutes the soil profile.
Layers in the soil, distinguished on the basis of color, soil texture, soil
structure, and other visible properties, are called horizons.
Several horizons make up the soil profile.
O layer: Organic material on the surface, which is not incorporated in
the soil.
A horizon: The top horizon.
E horizon (Eluvial): The upper layer from which materials are
generally washed downwards.
B horizon (Illuvial): Lower layers in which these materials
accumulate.
Solum: The A, E, and B horizons together.
C horizon: The unconsolidated parent material in which the soil is
formed.
R horizon: Unweathered rock (consolidated material) existing below
the parent material.
9 Components of the Soil
Soil is made up of three phases:
i. Solid, ii. Liquid, iii. Gaseous.
Soil
The liquid and gaseous (fluid) phases constitute approximately 25% volume
each. The solid phase is approximately 50% in volume. Solids (50%) Liquids (25%) Gases (25%)
In composition, the solid phase consists of organic (humus) and inorganic
Inorganic
fractions. Hence soils are made of four main components, i.e. Organic Component
Component
Mineral matter (40 - 60 %), • Soil water (20 - 50 %), • Soil Air (0 - 40 %), •
Organic material (small percentage). Fine Fraction Larger gravel
(<2 mm) (>2 mm) and rocks
The inorganic fine fraction (<2 mm) can be divided onto three components
of sand, silt and clay. Sand Silt Clay
These three components are basically made of minerals. Sand and silt are
predominantly of primary minerals while clay is mainly of secondary Primary Minerals Secondary minerals
(Quartz, feldspars (Clay minerals and
minerals. The primary minerals originate from the weathering of rocks. etc.) hydrous oxides
Secondary minerals result from weathering of primary minerals.
10 Purpose of Soil Classification
Recap: The grouping of different soils into classes on the basis of one or
more criteria.
Organize knowledge about the subject to enable investigation and
communication to be both logical and comprehensive
(structure/organization for scientific/technical development).
Provide a framework for establishing relationships among soils and
their environment that leads to advancement of theoretical and
experimental aspects of soil and related science (academic focus).
Establish groupings of soils for which useful and reliable
interpretations can be made (utilitarian focus). For example: optimal
use(s), hazard/limitation/remediation assessment, potential
productivity, framework for technology transfer/information
dissemination
11 Classification approaches
Technical classification
Designed for specific applied purposes (e.g., soil
engineering classifications, based largely on physical
properties).
Groups soils by some properties or functions that relate
directly to a proposed use or group of uses.
Natural classification
Attempts to organize the divisions of soils from a more
holistic appraisal of soil attributes.
Groups soils by some intrinsic property, behavior, or
genesis of the soils themselves, without reference to use.
12 Principles of natural soil
classification systems
1. A natural system of classification should express general or
universal relationships that exist in nature. One should be
able to understand, remember, generalize, or predict from
information obtained.
2. The scheme should be based on characteristics or attributes
of things classified as related to their genesis. It should place
similar things together on the basis of their properties.
3. It is technically impossible to use all of the properties of soils
to classify them. Judgment based on existing knowledge must
be used to determine which properties are most important.
Historical Perspective and concepts of Soil
Genesis / Classification
13 Early Systems (China, pre-1600 A.C.) – The Vao dynasty (2357–2261 B.C.) graded soils into nine
classes based on productivity, even linking them to taxation. Before 1600 A.C., soils were mainly
seen as a medium for plant growth, with knowledge passed through observation.
Liebig’s Revolution (1840) – Justus von Liebig showed that plants assimilate mineral nutrients
and introduced mineral fertilizers, greatly boosting crop yields. Thaer (1853) combined texture and
agricultural suitability in classification, while others (Fallou, Peters, Richtofen) emphasized geologic
origin.
Early Scientific Efforts (1600s–1800s) – Members of the Royal Society of London proposed
natural classifications. Agricultural chemistry, geography, and geology laid fragmented foundations
for pedology. In the late 19th century, pedology emerged as a discipline in Russia (Dokuchaev) and
the U.S. (Hilgard).
Dokuchaev’s Contribution (1883) – Defined soil as a natural body formed by five soil-forming
factors (climate, vegetation, relief, parent material, time). His “genetic classification” emphasized
soil genesis, processes, and diagnostic horizons/properties.
U.S. Developments (1890s–1970s) – Hilgard emphasized climate–soil links; Coffey (1912) and
Marbut (1951) introduced genetic principles into U.S. soil survey. Jenny (1941) detailed the five
factors. By the 1950s, Simonson and others argued genesis was too subjective.
This led to Soil Taxonomy (1975), a natural system based on observable and measurable soil
properties (diagnostic horizons), focusing on properties rather than processes.
14 Principles of Soil Taxonomy
Classify soils on basis of properties
Soil properties should be readily observable and / or measurable
Soil properties should either affect soil genesis or result from soil
genesis
15 Soil Properties vs. Processes in Soil Taxonomy
Focus on Properties, Not Processes – Soil Taxonomy classifies soils based on
observable or measurable properties, while soil-forming processes explain how
these properties arise.
Genesis “Lies Behind” Taxa – Soil-forming processes influence soil
characteristics, but the classification relies on the resulting properties, not the
processes themselves.
Field-Recognizable Features – Key properties like A horizon color (dark) and
granular structure are used to identify soils in the field.
Preference for Quantitative Measurement – Properties that can be measured
numerically are preferred over those assessed only qualitatively, ensuring
consistency in classification.