ROME:

CITY-STATE TO EMPIRE
• After the zenith of the Persians and subsequently
Greek Civilizations, Rome emerged as the world’s
superpower.
• The Roman beginnings are quite precarious. An
Indo-European people inhabited central and
southern Italy around 1500 B.C. Their lifestyle
which centered around agriculture was a very
simple one. Thus, farming villages developed,
however they lagged behind peoples of the East
and the Mediterranean.
• Around 800 BCE groups of people entered Italy
around which significantly impacted the course of
Italian history. These group were the Etruscans,
Greeks and Phoenicians. The Etruscans and the
Greeks had the greatest impact on Italy particular
Rome.
The Etruscans
• There is not a great deal of historical record of this
group. They did not leave a great deal of writing about
themselves and what exists has not yet been deciphered.
• It is known that the Etruscan King ruled over early Rome
from 750 BCE to 500 BCE and brought civil life to the
Romans. Pictorial records left reveal that the Etruscans
they had a tremendous influence on the religious beliefs,
art forms and architecture of the Romans. The Etruscans
were:
• Highly civilized
• They established a series of small states and ruled over
the Italians.
• Took control of Rome had superior weaponry and
organization.
• The Romans rebelled against the Etruscan Monarch and
were successful in throwing off their rule.
The Greeks
• In an attempt to evade over crowding the
Greek had moved into Southern Italy. They
influenced the Romans primarily in the
areas of attitudes and manners. The
Romans regarded Greeks as the one group
of people who were superior to them in
culture, imagination and commerce.
• They were awed by the organization and
administration of Greek towns and cities
and the influence of the Greeks resulted in
prosperity for Southern Italy.
The Phoenicians
• The influence of the Phoenicians came through
the great city of Carthage. By 700 BCE however,
Carthage was independent of its Mother
Country. Before the rise of Rome, Carthage was
a powerful force in the Western Mediterranean.
• It sent ships as far as Britain and the North Sea
to trade. Colonies were also founded on the
coasts of Spain and France. The Carthaginians
and the Greeks were at war in Southern Italy
and fought until both were exhausted, it was
then that the Romans were able to conquer both.
ROMAN GOVERNMENT
• In 509 B.C. when the Etruscan King was
ousted a new form of government
emerged in Rome. It was a combination of
the senate and the citizens.
Senate:
• Upper class or the Patricians were 10% of
the total population. The Patricians was
the Latin term for Fathers.
The Plebeians
• The commoners: represented 90% of
population. This segment of the
population was represented through
delegates elected to the general
assembly.
• Initially the General Assembly was meant
to be as powerful as or even more so than
the Senate. However soon after the
formation of the Roman Republic the
Senate obtained decisive power as
compared to the Assembly.
• The Tribunes were the Chief Officers of
the Plebeians.
• There were 10 tribunes with power to act
on behalf of the ordinary citizens. Initially
they represented the people. Later on they
joined to the senate and began to identify
more with the Patricians.
• The Chief executive power resided in
CONSULS elected from among members
of the senate for one year at a time. This
was owing to the fear of permanent
dictatorship.
• Below the Consuls were the censors: who
were former tax-collectors: later gained
powers to supervise the conduct of
senators.
IMPORTANT
• At the beginning of the Republic the
Patricians controlled all important aspects
of politics and government and did not
hesitate to exploit the plebeians. For two
centuries they struggled to attain
equality. Their most effective threat was
to lay down arms and not defend the city.
• The most important gains of the Plebeians
was the 87 Hortension Law: It gave Plebs
and Patricians equal voting rights and
‘equal’ access to office this was however
not authentic in reality.
ROME’S EMPIRE
• Rome became the master of Italian Peninsula
through a series of internal wars and
invasions. Initially the conquered were
intimidated and enslaved. Eventually subjects
were encouraged to become good Romans.
• They inter-married and adopted the Latin
language. The conquered Italians and Greeks
also accepted basic elements of Roman
customs and laws. This process was called
Latinizing.
• The Romans gave partial citizenship to
the conquered Italians as long as they did
not rebel and agreed to supply troops
when Rome called.
• This arrangement was amenable to the
conquered because partial citizenship
eased their tax burden, assured them of
Roman assistance against enemies and
gave them powers of self government.
• Some of the conquered Italians and
Greeks were allowed to become full
citizens. This meant they could run for
office, vote in Roman elections, serve in
the army and in bureaucracy and have
protection of private property and other
legal rights not available to non-citizens.
• This meant that the upper classes of
conquered Italians and Greeks were
eager to Latinize themselves and thus
qualify for full citizenship.
• During the period 500-275 BCE the Romans were
constantly at war. Rome’s Imperialist thrust was
achieved through the Punic Wars.
• First Punic War (264 – 241) – This war was against
Carthage. These two mighty cities were at war and it
was the end of this conflict that allowed Rome to
become the center of a world Empire. This thrust was
also an important impetus for the growth of the
Roman navy.
• Second Punic War ( 218 – 202) The legendary
Hannibal fought desperately against the Romans. At
the battle of Zama in 202 BCE Carthage was
decisively defeated. They gave up their colonies in
Spain and Africa.
• Years of being embattled led to the
development of a military class with
increasing importance in Rome. Other
Hellenistic kingdoms around the Eastern
edge of the Mediterranean were soon
defeated by Roman armies.
• There was opposition by those Senators who
felt that these activities were far from what
Roman tradition honoured.
• The conquest of the East was executed by an
outstanding military machine. The infantry
was recruited from all male citizens, service
was compulsory.
• Military Service was involuntary:
therefore after years of fighting and not
being able to eke out a living soldiers
were in dire financial state. To address
this problem, PROCONSULS were
created.
• These were a group of permanent
commanders/governors. The majority of
these men were patricians. They
therefore strong political affiliation.
• The development of a new urban proletariat
weakened Roman’s democracy.
• Poverty stricken farmers, some of Ex-
soldiers flocked into the city. This
exacerbated:
• Overcrowding
• Poor sanitary conditions
• High unemployment rate
• Rioting
• The stability of the government was at stake.
• Members of the new proletariat- (people who
sell their labour for a living – no other
sources of income) had a vote. Willing to
follow any general who promised them a
decent living.
• Consequently, the generals were rising in
importance at the same time the upper
class/senators fought among themselves
divided between social and political reform
and the tradition.
• Ambitious generals therefore grasped the
opportunity to rise to power.
MARIUS:
• A general, member of the upper class saw chance for
fame in the war against African rebels. Marius had
himself re-elected for 6 years 107 BC. He abolished
property qualification for soldiers.
• There was a different breed of man now in the Roman
army. People with nothing to lose and the Roman
Military became a force for instability and an
important base for all who had political ambitions.
• Soldiers were assured full employment and land
grants upon retirement. Therefore their allegiance
was more to their commanders than to their senate.
• Conflict followed as another general Sullan
outmaneuvered Marius. He eventually established
himself as leader. The democracy eventually
collapsed when a Patrician general and Julius Caesar
formed a Triumvirate or rule of three.
JULIUS CAESAR
• Conquered territories.
• Made himself dictator.
• Instituted several reforms including the
Roman Calendar
• He was assassinated in AD 44. Julius
Caesar was succeeded by his son
Augustus.
AUGUSTUS CAESAR
• He became consul for life.
• Enlarged the senate and put his
supporters.
• He created a type of constitutional
monarchy suited to Roman realties.
• Augustus Caesar recognized the problems
of the poor. His rule ushered in what was
known as the era of Augustus.