SPECIAL NEEDS

AND

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

INCLUSIVENESS
Course Code: SNIE 1012
Credit and Contact Hours: 2

Esubalew Almaw
 COURSE OBJECTIVE AND
EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Identify the needs and potentials of persons with disabilities
and vulnerabilities.
• Identify environmental and social barriers that hinder the
needs, potentials and full participations, in all aspects of
life of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities
• Demonstrate desirable inclusive attitude towards all
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities in full
participations
• Apply various assessment strategies for service provisions
• Adapt environments and services according to the need and
potential of the persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities
• Utilize appropriate assistive technology and other support
mechanisms that address the needs of persons with
disabilities and vulnerabilities
• Respect and advocate for the right of persons with
disabilities and vulnerabilities
• Collaboratively work with special needs experts and
significant others for the life success of all persons with
disabilities and vulnerabilities in every endeavors and in
all environments.
• Create and maintain successful inclusive environment for
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities
• Promote the process of building inclusive society
 CHAPTER ONE
UNDERSTANDING DISABILITIES
AND VULNERABILITIES

Chapter objectives
At the end of completing this chapter, the
students will be able to:
• Define disability and vulnerability
• List different types of disabilities and vulnerabilities
• Explain brief causes of disability and vulnerability
• Describe the brief historical movements from segregation to
inclusion
• Describe the effect of attitude on the move towards inclusion
• Discuss models of disability
DEFINITIONS OF BASIC TERMS

Impairment
• Impairment is refers to any loss or abnormality of physiological,
psychological or anatomical structure or function or deviation on a
person.

• It is the absence of particular part of the body or organ. It could also

a condition in which the body exists but doesn‘t function. Some
children, for instance, have impairments such as eyes that do not
see well, arms and legs that are deformed, or a brain not
developing in a typical way etc.
 WHAT IS DISABILITY?
Models that characterized the history of disability:

1. the traditional model,

2. the medical/genetic model,

3. the social/human-rights model .

1. Traditional Model: this model considers disability as a result

of some sin or as a punishment from god.

2. Medical Approach: Disability is pathology (physiological,

biological and intellectual).
• it is a functional limitations due to physical, intellectual or
psychic impairment, health or psychic disorders on a person
(who,1996).

• it is a physical ,psychological, or neurological deviation that may

result from impairment for specific function. for example,
inability to read ink – print

• This model considers that persons with disability have a

dysfunction or a problem that needs to be corrected. Therefore,
medical model promotes activities such as treatment, surgery,
appliances, etc. aimed at reducing the disability in the person.
• The medical model views disability as a problem of the
person, directly caused by disease, trauma or other health
condition, which requires medical care provided in the
form of individual treatment by professionals.

• The medical definition has given rise to the idea that

people are individual objects to be “treated”, “changed"
or “improved" and made more “normal”.
 3- Social Model:

• This model considers physical, social, cultural, environmental

and attitudinal barriers that "disable" persons with impairments
and that block their participation in different life activities.
therefore, this model promotes a fight against the different
barriers.

• The social model of disability, on the other hand, sees the issue
mainly as a socially created problem, and basically as a matter
of the full integration of individuals into society
• Disability is not an attribute of an individual, but rather a complex
collection of conditions, many of which are created by the social
environment.

• Hence the management of the problem requires social action, and it

is the collective responsibility of society at large to make the
environmental modifications necessary for the full participation of
people with disabilities in all areas of social life. The issue is
therefore an attitudinal or ideological one requiring social change,
which at the political level becomes a question of human rights. For
this model disability is a political issue.
• The social model of disability has consider disability as arising from the
interaction of a person’s functional status with the physical, cultural, and

policy environments.

Summary
disability

• It refers to any restriction or lack of ability (resulting from impairment) to

perform an activity in a manner or within the range considered normal for

a human being.

• It refers to the condition when impairment interferes with the process of

education or work affecting the performance of all activities expected of

individuals at their age and their social and economic situation.

 Handicap
It is a disadvantage for a given individual,
resulting from an impairment or disability, that
limits and prevents the fulfillment of a role that
is normal, depending on age, sex, social, and
cultural factors for that individual.

WHO defines handicap as a social or economic

disadvantage resulting from impairment.

It is a function of the relationship between

disabled persons and their environment.
• To sum-up, a disease at its initial stage may
result in some kind of intellectual, language,
sensory or motor impairment. The impairment
again can lead into lack of power or ability to
act, communicate or take care of one self,
which is called disability. As the result of the
disability, a person can face problems in life,
such as dependency on others, neglect by
others, low status and feeling of inferiority or
low self-esteem. This position of becoming
socially marginalized is called handicap.
 • Examples to illustrate the differences among the terms
"impairment,“ "disability," and "handicap."

• David is a 4-yr.-old who has a form of cerebral palsy (CP) called

spastic diplegia. David's CP causes his legs to be stiff, tight, and
difficult to move. He cannot stand or walk.

• Impairment: The inability to move the legs easily at the joints

and inability to bear weight on the feet is an impairment. Without
orthotics or surgery, David's level of impairment may increase as
imbalanced muscle contraction over a period of time can cause
hip dislocation and deformed bone growth. No treatment may be
currently available to lessen David's impairment.
• Disability: David's inability to walk is a disability. His level of
disability can be improved with physical therapy and special
equipment. For example, if he learns to use a walker, his level of
disability will improve considerably.

• Handicap: David's cerebral palsy is handicapping to the extent

that it prevents him from fulfilling a normal role at home, in
preschool, and in the community.
 CAUSES OF DISABILITY

Some people, especially in the past

times, wrongly believe that disability is
a punishment from God. There are some
who still believe that disability is a form
of personal punishment for individual
with disability, a kind of karma for their
past mistakes, which is totally
unacceptable now days. Disability can be
caused by the following factors.
CAN BE CAUSED BY THE FOLLOWING FACTORS.
GENETIC CAUSES

• Abnormalities in genes and genetic

inheritance can cause intellectual

disability in children. In some countries,

Down syndrome is the most common

genetic condition. Sometimes,

diseases, illnesses, and over-exposure

to x-rays can cause a genetic disorder.

Environmental cause
• Poverty and malnutrition in pregnant mothers can
cause a deficiency in vital minerals and result in
deformation issues in the unborn child.

• After birth, poverty and malnutrition can also

cause poor development of vital organs in the
child, which can eventually lead to disability.

• The use of drugs, alcohol, tobacco, the exposure to

certain toxic chemicals and illnesses by a pregnant
mother can cause intellectual disability to the
child.

• Childhood diseases such as a whooping cough and

measles, may lead to meningitis and encephalitis.
This can cause damage to the brain of the child.

• Unfortunate life events such as drowning,

automobile accidents, falls and so on can result in
 INACCESSIBLE ENVIRONMENTS

• Sometimes society makes it difficult for people

with some impairment to function freely.

• When society develops infrastructure such as

houses, roads, parks and other public places
without consideration to people with
impairment, the basically make it impossible for
them to take care of themselves.

• Lack of education, support services, health and

opportunities for people with impairment can
cause additional disability to people with
disabilities and even people with no disability.
 UNKNOWN CAUSES

The human body is a phenomenal thing.

Scientists have still not figured out what
and how some things in the body, cells,
brain, and genes come about. Humans
have still not found all the answers to all
the defects in the human body.
 TYPE OF DISABILITIES

Persons with Visual impairment

• Visual impairment in general designates two sub- classifications.

• These are blindness and low vision.

A. Blindness is the total inability to see because of disease or disorder of the eye,
optic nerve, or brain.

• It is the inability to discriminate light from dark,.

• The term blindness typically refers to vision loss that is not correctable with
eyeglasses or contact lenses.

• It is the profound visual impairment that prohibits the use of vision as an

educational tool.
• Blindness may not mean a total absence of sight, however. Some
people who are considered blind may be able to perceive slowly
moving lights or colors.

B. Low vision is used for moderately impaired vision.

• is a severe visual impairment with minimal visual function after

correction.

• It can be increased through the use of optical aids and environmental

modifications

• People with low vision may have a visual impairment that affects only
central vision—the area directly in front of the eyes or peripheral
vision—the area to either side of and slightly behind the eyes
 Peoples with Hearing Impairment

• Hearing impairment: a generic term indicating a continuum of hearing loss from

mild to profound, which includes the sub-classifications of the hard of hearing

and deaf.

A. Hard of Hearing: individuals have hearing that is adequate for successful

processing of linguistic information through hearing with amplification.

• These are individuals in whom sense of hearing through defective is functional

with or without a hearing aid. They are also referred to as individuals with partial

hearing loss

• A term to describe persons with enough residual hearing, to use hearing [usually
with a hearing aid] as a primary modality for acquisition of language and in
B. Deaf: individuals have hearing impairment that precludes
successful processing of linguistic information through hearing with
or without amplification.

• Those who have difficulty understanding speech, even with hearing

aids but can successfully communicate in sign language.

• Children who cannot hear sounds at all or above certain intensity

are grouped as being deaf.

• A term used to describe persons whose sense of hearing is non

functional for ordinary use in communication, with or without
hearing.
SPECIFIC LEARNING
DISABILITY

A disorder in one or more of the basic

psychological processes involved in understanding
or in using language, spoken or written, that may
manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen,
think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do
mathematical calculations
Learning disabilities should not be
confused with learning problems which
are primarily the result of Le
a rn
• visual Di
sa
g in
• hearing ty bili
Le Vs
• motor handicaps ar
ni
• intellectual disability Pr g n
ob
• emotional disturbance m le
s
• environmental
• cultural or economic disadvantages.
• People with learning disabilities are of
average or above average intelligence.

• There often appears to be a gap between the

individual‘s potential and actual achievement.
This is why learning disabilities are referred to
as hidden disabilities.

• A learning disability cannot be cured or fixed;

it is a lifelong challenge
TYPES OF SPECIFIC
LEARNING DISABILITIES

Dyscalculia
• Dyscalculia is a specific learning disability that
affects a person‘s ability to understand numbers
and learn math.
 have poor comprehension of math symbols
 may struggle with memorizing
 organizing numbers
 have difficulty telling time, or have trouble with
counting.
DYSGRAPHIA
Affects a person‘s handwriting ability
and fine motor skills.
• Problems may includes:
 illegible handwriting
inconsistent spacing
poor spatial planning on paper
poor spelling
difficulty composing writing as well as
thinking and writing at the same time.
DYSLEXIA

Affects reading and related language-

based processing skills.

• The severity can differ in each individual

but can affect reading fluency; decoding,
reading comprehension, recall, writing,
spelling, and sometimes speech and can
exist along with other related disorders.
 4. PERSONS WITH
COMMUNICATION DISORDER

• It is disorder that adversely affects the child's ability to talk,

understand, read, and write.

• It is an impairment in the ability to use speech or language to

communicate.

• This disability category can be divided into two groups:

1) Speech Impairments

2) Language Impairments
1. SPEECH IMPAIRMENTS

• An impairment in the production

and use of oral or spoken
language.

• There are three basic types of

speech impairments:

1) articulation disorders
2) fluency disorders
3) voice disorders
 A) ARTICULATION DISORDERS
It is Abnormal (errors) production of speech sounds.

►Therefore a child may say “dood” girl instead of “good” girl.

These disorders include:

• Omissions: (bo for boat)

• Substitutions: (wabbit for rabbit)
• Distortions: (shlip for sip)
• Addition
• Missing, substituted, added or poorly pronounced word/sound may make
a speaker difficult to understand.
B) FLUENCY DISORDERS
Difficulties with the rhythm and timing of speech
characterized by hesitations, repetitions, or
prolongations of sounds, syllables, words, or
phrases.

Common fluency disorders include:

• Stuttering: is a disruption in the timing of speaking.
-rapid-fire repetitions of consonant or vowel
sounds especially at the beginning of words,
prolongations, hesitations, interjections, and
complete verbal blocks

• Cluttering: is a running together in rapid, jumbled

speaking of sounds, words and phrases.
 C) VOICE DISORDERS
• It an abnormal spoken language production of voice quality,
characterized by unusually pitch, loudness, resonance, and/or
duration.

• Voice disorders are problems with the quality or use of one's voice
resulting from disorders in the larynx.

• Pitch: This is an aspect of voice. Its perceived high or low

sound quality.

• Loudness: Intensity can be used to describe loudness. Voice

can be described as either being too loud or too soft .
 2. LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENTS

• Language disorders, which are impairments or atypical

development of a comprehension and/or use of spoken and/or
written symbol. Which includes disorders of:

i. form is the rule of language including phonology,

morphology and syntax.

ii. content / Phonology /

[Link] of language
There are five basic areas of language
impairments:
1) phonological disorders
2) morphological disorders
3) semantic disorders
4) syntactical deficits
5) pragmatic difficulties.
• Phonological disorders (hard to understand or as not saying the sounds
correctly),

• Morphological disorders (inflections on nouns, verbs, and adjectives that

signal different kinds of meanings),

• Semantic disorders (poor vocabulary development, inappropriate use of

word meanings, and/or inability to comprehend word meanings),

• Syntactical deficits (difficulty in acquiring the rules that govern word

order and others aspects of grammar such as subject-verb agreement), and

• Pragmatic difficulties (lack an understanding of the rules for making eye

contact, respecting personal space, requesting information, and
Inclusiveness:Chapter 1 38
introducing topics).
 AUTISM
• Autism means a developmental disability significantly
affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and
social interaction, generally evident before age three
that adversely affects a child‘s educational performance.

Characteristics
 Engaging in repetitive activities
 Stereotyped movements
 Resistance to environmental change or change in daily
routines

 Unusual responses to sensory experiences.

EMOTIONAL AND
BEHAVIORAL
DISORDERS
• According to (IDEA), the term Emotional and Behavioral Disorders means a
condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a
long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects
educational performance.

1)An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory,

or health factors;

2)An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal

relationships with peers and teachers;

3)Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal

circumstances;

4)A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression;

5)A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with
personal or school problems.
 Causes of behavioral and emotional disorders

• Behavioral and emotion disorders result from many causes, these includes
the following.

1. Biological- includes genetic disorders, brain damage, and malnutrition,

allergies, temperament and damage to the central nervous system.

2. Family factors- include family interactions, family influence, child abuse,

neglect, and poor disciplinary practices at home.

3. Cultural factors- include some traditional and cultural negative practices,

for example watching violence and sexually oriented movies and TV
programs.

4. Environmental factors- include peer pressure, living in impoverished areas,

and schooling practices that are unresponsive to individual needs.
 CLASSIFICATION OF BEHAVIORAL AND
EMOTIONAL DISORDERS
A. Conduct disorder: individuals may seek attention, are disruptive and act out.

• The disorder is classified by type: overt (with violence or tantrums) versus

covert (with lying, stealing, and/or drug use).

B. Socialized aggression: individuals join subculture group of peers who are

openly disrespectful to their peers, teachers, and parents.

• Common are delinquency and dropping out of school.

• Early symptoms include stealing, running away from home, habitual lying,
cruelty to animals, and fire setting.

C. Attention problems- These individuals may have attention deficit, are easily
destructible and have poor concentration.

• They are frequently impulsive and may not think the consequence of their
actions.
D. Anxiety/Withdrawn- These individuals are self-conscious, reserved,
and unsure of themselves.

• They typically have low self-esteem and withdraw from immediate

activities. They are also anxious and frequently depressed.

E. Psychotic behavior: These individuals show more bizarre behavior.

They may hallucinate, deal in a fantasy world and may even talk in
gibberish.

F. Motor excess: These students are hyperactive. They cannot sit nor
listen to others nor keep their attention focused.
KAUFFMAN (1993) CONCLUDE THAT
EMOTION OR BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS
FALL INTO TWO BROAD CLASSIFICATIONS:

1). Externalizing Behavior: also called under

controlled disorder, include such problems
disobedience, disruptiveness, fighting, tempers
tantrums, irresponsibility, jealous, anger,
attention seeking etc.

2) Internalizing Behavior: also known as over

controlled disorders, include such problems
anxiety, immaturity, shyness, social
withdrawal, feeling of inadequacy (inferiority),
INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY

Intellectual disability is a disability

characterized by significant limitations in
both intellectual functioning and in
adaptive behavior, which covers numerous
everyday social and practical skills. This
disability originates before the age of 18
 An individual is considered to have
an intellectual disability based on
the following three criteria:

1. Sub average intellectual functioning: it refers to

general mental capacity, such as learning,
reasoning, problem solving, and so on.

2. Significant limitations exist in two or more

adaptive skill areas: it is the collection of
conceptual, social, and practical skills that are
learned and performed by people in their
everyday lives.
 Conceptual skills: language and literacy; money, time, and
number concepts; and self-direction.

 Social skills: interpersonal skills, social responsibility, self-

esteem, gullibility, innocence (i.e. Suspicion), social problem
solving, and the ability to follow rules/obey laws and to avoid
being victimized.

 Practical skills: activities of daily living (personal care),

occupational skills, healthcare, travel/transportation,
schedules/routines, safety, use of money, use of the telephone.
3. Intellectual Disability originates before the age of 18
 Physical impairment/Orthopedic Impairment

• Physical disability is a condition that interferes with the individual‘s

ability to use his or her body.

• Many but not all, physical disabilities are orthopedic impairments.

• Orthopedic impairment refers to conditions of muscular or skeletal
system and sometimes to physical disabling conditions of the
nervous system).

• Based on the impact of physical disability on mobility and motor

skills, it is divided into three. these are:-

a. Mild physical disability: these individuals are able to walk without

aids and may make normal developmental progress.
b. Moderate physical disability:- individuals can walk with braces and
crutches and may have difficulty with fine-motor skills and speech
production.

c. Severe physical disability: these are individuals who are wheel-chair

dependent and may need special help to achieve regular development

• Physical impairment could be broadly classified into two.

I. Neurological System (the brain ,spinal cord & nerve) related
problems.

II. Muscular/Skeletal system (the muscles, bones and joints) are

deficient due to various causes.
• Neurological impairment are cerebral palsy , multiple sclerosis,
muscular dystrophy, polio, seizure and spinal cord disorders.

• Muscular/Skeletal Conditions are limb deficiencies, juvenile

arthritis and skeletal disorders
 Health impairment
• Health impairment is a condition that requires
ongoing medical attention.
• It includes asthma, heart defects, cancer,
diabetes and HIV/AIDS, etc.
CLASSIFICATION AND
CHARACTERISTICS
Physical disabilities:- based on the impact of
physical disability on mobility and motor
skills, it is divided into three. These are:-
[Link] physical disability:-
these individuals are able to walk without aids and may
make normal developmental progress.

B. Moderate physical disability:-

individuals can walk with braces and crutches and may
have difficulty with fine-motor skills and speech
production.

[Link] physical disability:-

these are individuals who are wheel-chair dependent and
may need special help to achieve regular development.
 VULNERABILITY

• Vulnerable means being at risk or

harmed. Everyone can be harmed, so
being vulnerable is part of being human. In
principle, everyone is vulnerable to some
adverse event or circumstance, but some
people are more vulnerable than others
BASED ON THE EXISTING LITERATURE, VULNERABILITY
CAN BE GENERALLY DEFINED AS A COMPLEX
PHENOMENON THAT REFERS TO THE FOLLOWING
DIMENSIONS:

[Link] difficulties/lack of financial

resources: poverty, low living standards,
housing problems (e.g. too damp, too
expensive, too cold or difficult to heat) etc.;
2. Social exclusion: limited access to facilities
such as transportation, schools, libraries or
medical services;
3. Lack of social support from social networks:
no assistance from family members, friends,
neighbors or colleagues (referring to practical
help as well as emotional support) like highly
4. Stigmatization: being a victim of
stereotypes, being devalued,
confronted with disgraceful
behavior because of belonging to a
particular social or ethnic group;
5. Health difficulties: disadvantages
resulting from poor mental health,
physical health or disabilities;
6. Being a victim of crime: in family
context especially of violence.
 CAUSES OF VULNERABILITY
• Vulnerability may be causes by
• rapid population growth, poverty and hunger, poor health, low levels of
education, gender inequality, fragile and hazardous location,

• lack of access to resources and services, including knowledge and technological

means, disintegration of social patterns (social vulnerability).

• lack of access to information and knowledge, lack of public awareness, limited

access to political power and representation (political vulnerability),

• Environmental vulnerability concerns land degradation, earthquake, flood,

hurricane, drought, storms, water scarcity, deforestation, and the other threats to
biodiversity.

• The economic vulnerability is related to a number of interacting elements,

including its importance in the overall national economy, trade and foreign-
exchange earnings, aid and investments, international prices of commodities and
inputs, and production and consumption patterns.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF VULNERABLE PEOPLE

1. Less physically or mentally capable (infants, older adults, people with

disabilities)

2. Fewer material and/or financial resources (low-income households,

homeless)

3. Less knowledge or experience (children, illiterate, foreigners, tourists)

4. Restricted by society to grow and develop according to their needs and
potentials

• People who are helped by others (who are then restricted by

commitments) are still vulnerable people
A. Women: particularly women in developing nations and those who are
living in rural areas are vulnerable for many backward traditional
practices and do not get access to education and employment.

B. Children: are vulnerable for psychological and physical abuse.

This include illegally working children, homeless children, uneducated
children, married children, mentally ill children, migrant children,
orphans, street children, war-affected children…etc

C. Minorities: Particularly, ethnic (cultural and linguistic minority),

religious minority. These people are political and socially discriminated.

D. Disabilities: People with disabilities very much vulnerable for many

kind of risks. This includes abuses, poverty, illiteracy, health problems,
psychological and social problems.
E. Age: Old people or very young children are vulnerable for all kinds evils
F. Illiteracy and less education: People with high rates of illiteracy and lack
quality educational opportunities are vulnerable for absence all kinds of
developments

G. Sickness: Uncured health problems for example people living with

HIV/AIDS are much vulnerable for psychosocial problems, poverty and
health

H. Gifted and Talentedness: Gifted and talented children are vulnerable for
socio-emotional developments. Due to lack of psychological support they
may feel isolation as they are pulled from their regular classrooms and
given instruction in separate settings and due to myths and expectations of
themselves and the public.
 CHAPTER TWO
CONCEPT OF INCLUSION
Learning Objectives
After the students have studied this chapter, they will be
able to:
Define inclusion
Discuss the concept of inclusion in education
Identify reason regarding shift from special education and integrated
education inclusion
Differentiate the major rationales for inclusion
List factors that influenced development of inclusion
Identify benefits of inclusion to students, teachers‘ parents and society
Name major characteristics of inclusive school and inclusive classroom
environments
Point out strategies to implement inclusion in teaching and learning
processes
Differentiate the major barriers to inclusion.
 DEFINITION OF INCLUSION
• Inclusion in education/service refers to an
ongoing process aimed at offering quality
education/services for all while respecting
diversity and the different needs and
abilities, characteristics and learning
expectations of the students and
communities and eliminating all forms of
discrimination.
a process of addressing and
responding to the diversity of all
learners through increasing
participation in learning, cultures and
communities, and eliminating all forms
of discrimination.
involves changes and modifications in
contents
approaches
 structures and strategies, with a common vision
which covers all children of the appropriate age
The process of systematically
bringing together all children with
or without disabilities regardless of
the nature and severity of disability
in natural setting (environment)
where children learn and play.
Having a wide range of
strategies, activities and
processes that seek to make a
reality of the universal right to
quality, relevant and
appropriate education and
services
It acknowledges that learning begins at
birth and continues throughout life, and
includes learning in the home, the
community, and in formal, informal and
non-formal situations.
It seeks to enable communities, systems
and structures in all cultures and contexts
to combat discrimination, celebrate
diversity, promote participation and
overcome barriers to learning and
It is part of a wider strategy
promoting inclusive development,
with the goal of creating a world
where there is peace, tolerance, and
sustainable use of resources, social
justice, and where the basic needs
and rights of all are met.
The underlying philosophy embedded in
the above definition is that
1) Concepts about children
• Education is a fundamental human right for
all people
• Learning begins at birth and continues
throughout life
• All children have a right to education within
their own community
• Everyone can learn, and any child can
experience difficulties in learning
2) Concepts about systems including schools
• It is broader than formal schooling
• it is flexible, responsive educational
systems
• It creates enabling and welcoming
educational environments
• It promotes school improvement-makes
effective schools
• It involves whole school approach and
collaboration between partners.
3) Concepts about
diversity and
discrimination
• It promotes combating discrimination and
exclusionary pressures at any social sectors

• It enables responding to diversity as a

resource not as a problem

• It prepares learners for an inclusive society

that respects and values difference.
4) Concepts about
processes to promote
inclusion
• It helps to identifying and overcoming barriers
to participation and exclusionary pressures

• It increases real participation and collaboration

between all stakeholders.

• It promotes participatory methodology, action

research, collaborative enquiry and other related
activities
5) Concepts about
resources
• Promotes unlocking and fully using local
resources redistributing existing resources

• It helps to perceive people (children, parents,

teachers, members of marginalized groups, etc.)
as key resources

• It helps to use appropriate resources and support

within schools and at local levels for the needs of
different children, e.g. mother tongue tuition,
Braille, assistive devices.
 McLeskey and Waldron (2000) have
identified inclusion and non-inclusive
practices.
According to them inclusion includes the following
components:

• Students with disabilities and vulnerability attend

their neighborhood schools

• Each student is in an age-appropriate general

education classroom

• Every student is accepted and regarded as a full and

valued member of the class and the school
community.
 Special education supports are
provided to each student with a
disability within the context of
the general education
classroom.
 All students receive an
education that addresses their
individual needs
 All members of the school promote
cooperative/ collaborative teaching
arrangements.
 There is school-based planning,
problem-solving, and ownership of
all students and programs.
 Employed according to their
capacities without discriminations.
On the other hand, they argue
that inclusion does not mean:
 Placing students with disabilities
into general education classrooms
without careful planning and
adequate support.
 Reducing services or funding for
special education services.
 Placing all students who have
disabilities or who are at risk in one
INCLUSION AND NON-INCLUSIVE
PRACTICES.
INCLUSION DOES
INCLUSION MEAN NOT MEAN
• Students with disabilities and • Placing students with disabilities
vulnerability attend their neighborhood into general education classrooms
schools without careful planning and
• Each student is in an age-appropriate adequate support.
general education classroom
• Placing all students who have
• Every student is accepted and regarded disabilities or who are at risk in one or
as a full and valued member of the class a few designated classrooms.
and the school community.
• Teachers spending a disproportionate
• Special education supports are provided amount of time teaching or adapting
to each student with a disability within the curriculum for students with
the context of the general education disabilities.
classroom.
• Isolating students with disabilities
• All students receive an education that socially, physically, or academically
addresses their individual needs
within the general education school or
• No student is excluded based on type or classroom.
degree of disability.
• Endangering the achievement of
PRINCIPLES OF
INCLUSION
The fundamental principle of inclusion is
that all persons should learn, work and
live together wherever possible, regardless of
any difficulties or differences they may have.

Inclusion begins with the premise that all

persons have unique characteristics,
interests, abilities and particular learning
needs and, further, that all persons have equal
access to education, employment and
services.
UNESCO (2005) HAS PROVIDED FOUR
MAJOR INCLUSION PRINCIPLES THAT
SUPPORT INCLUSIVE PRACTICE

1. Inclusion is a process
• inclusion has to be seen as a never-ending search
to find better ways of responding to diversity.

• It is about learning how to live with difference

and learning how to learn from difference.
Differences come to be seen more positively as a
stimulus for fostering learning amongst children
and adults.
 2. INCLUSION IS CONCERNED WITH THE
IDENTIFICATION AND REMOVAL OF
BARRIERS THAT HINDERS THE
DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONS WITH
DISABILITIES.
• It involves collecting, organizing and
evaluating information from a wide variety
of sources in order to plan for
improvements in policy and practice.

• It is about using evidence of various kinds

to stimulate creativity and problem -
solving.
3. INCLUSION IS ABOUT THE
PRESENCE, PARTICIPATION AND
ACHIEVEMENT OF ALL PERSONS.

• Presence: is concerned with where persons

are provided and how reliably and punctually
they attend

• Participation: relates to the quality of their

experiences and must incorporate the views of
learners/and or workers

• Achievement: is about the outcomes of learning

across the curriculum, not just test and exam
4. INCLUSION INVOKES A PARTICULAR
EMPHASIS ON THOSE WHO MAY BE AT
RISK OF MARGINALIZATION, EXCLUSION OR
UNDERACHIEVEMENT.

• This indicates the moral responsibility

to ensure that those ‘at risk’ are
carefully monitored, and that steps
are taken to ensure their presence,
participation and achievement.
RATIONALES FOR INCLUSION AND
THEIR RESPECTIVE DESCRIPTIONS

Educational Foundations
 Children do better academically,
psychologically and socially in
inclusive settings.

 A more efficient use of education

resources.

 Decreases dropouts and repetitions

Social Foundation
 All individuals need an education
that will help them develop
relationships and prepare them for
life in the wider community.

 Inclusion has the potential to

reduce fear and to build friendship,
respect and understanding.
Legal Foundations
• All individuals have the right to learn and
live together.
• Human being shouldn‘t be devalued or
discriminated.
• There are no legitimate reasons to
separate children for their education

Foundations for Building Inclusive

Society
• Formation of mutual understanding and
appreciation of diversity
• Building up empathy, tolerance and
cooperation
• Promotion of sustainable development
Economic Foundation
• Inclusive education has economic benefit,
both for individual and for society.

• Inclusive education is more cost-effective

than the creation of special schools across
the country.

• Reduce wastage of repetition and dropout

• Children with disabilities live with their
family use community infrastructure

• Better employment and job creation

opportunities for people with disabilities
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCED
DEVELOPMENT OF INCLUSION:

Inclusive education is facilitated by many

influencing actors. Some of the major drivers
include:
• Communities

• Activists and advocates

• The quality education and school improvement

movement

• Special educational needs movement

• Involvement of International agencies:

• Involvement of NGOs movements, networks and

campaigns:
• Other factors: the current world
situation and practical experiences in
education.

The current world situation presents

challenges such as:

the spread of HIV/AIDS

political instability
trends in resource distribution
diversity of population, and social
inclusion.
BENEFITS OF INCLUSION
• It is now understood that inclusion
benefits communities, families,
teachers, and students by:

 ensuring that children with

disabilities attend school with their
peers.

 providing them with adequate

support to succeed both
academically and socially.
BENEFITS FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITY

In inclusive settings people will

develop:
• Appropriate models of behavior.
• Improved friendships
• Increased social interactions,
relationships and networks.
• Gain peer role models for academic,
social and behavior skills
• Increased achievement of
individualized educational program
(IEP) goals
• Improved academic achievement
• Improved school staff
collaboration

• Increased parental participation

• Enhanced families integration

into the community
 BENEFITS FOR PERSONS WITHOUT
DISABILITY

Students without special educational needs will:

• Have a variety of opportunities for interacting

with their age peers who experience SEN in
inclusive school settings.

• serve as peer tutors during instructional

activities

• Play the role of a special friend during lunch, in

the bus or playground.

• Gain knowledge of a good deal about

tolerance, individual difference, and human
exceptionality.
• Have chance to learn about many of the
human service profession

• Have increased appreciation, acceptance and

respect of individual differences among
human beings

• Get greater opportunities to master activities

by practicing and teaching others

• Have increased academic outcomes

• have opportunity to learn to communicate,

and deal effectively with a wide range of
individuals.
BENEFITS FOR TEACHERS AND
PARENTS/FAMILY
• Benefit to teachers includes:
 developing their knowledge and
skills that meet diverse students‘
needs
 ability differences to enhancing
their skills to work with their
stakeholders
 gaining satisfaction in their
profession and other aspects.
• Parents/family benefit from
inclusive education.

For example:
 Develop their positive attitude
towards their children‘s
education
 positive feeling toward their
participation
 appreciation to differences
 BENEFITS FOR SOCIETY
• Helps the society to break down barriers and
prejudice that prevail in the society towards
persons with disability.

• Communities become more accepting of

difference, and everyone benefits from a
friendlier, open environment that values and
appreciates differences in human beings.
ULTIMATE GOAL OF
INCLUSION

• The goal of inclusive education is to

create schools where everyone
belongs.

• By creating inclusive schools, we

ensure that there‘s a welcoming
place in the community for everyone
after their school year‘s end.
Inclusive society
• is a necessary precondition for
inclusive growth
 is a society which does not exclude
or discriminate against its citizens
on the basis of disability,
background, race, gender, family or
community
 a society which levels the playing
field for investment‘ and leaves no
one behind.
FEATURES OF INCLUSIVE
ENVIRONMENT

• An inclusive environment is an environment

that welcomes all people, regardless of their
disability and other vulnerabilities.

• It recognizes and uses their skills and

strengthens their abilities.

• An inclusive environment includes

individuals with disabilities and
vulnerabilities at all levels.
IT HAS THE FOLLOWING
MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS:
• it ensures the respect and dignity of

individuals with disabilities

• it meets current accessibility standards to the

greatest extent possible to all people with

special needs

• provides accommodations willingly and

proactively

• Persons with disabilities are welcomed and are

valued for their contributions as individuals.
 INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

An inclusive environment is a

place that is adjusted to
individuals‘ needs and not vice
versa (that individuals are
adjusted to the environmental
needs).
It acknowledges that individual
differences among individuals
An inclusive environment is also
directed:
 towards developing culture, policy
and practice which meet pupils’
diversities
 towards identifying and removing
obstacles in learning and
participating
 towards developing a suitable
provisions and supporting
SUCCESSFUL ENVIRONMENT HAS THE
FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS

• It develops whole-school/environment
processes

• It recognizes and responds to the diverse

needs of their individuals

• Ensuring quality provisions for all through

appropriate accommodations,
organizational arrangements, resource use
and partnerships with their community.
 It provides services and
facilities equally accessible to
all people.
 It is committed to serve all
individuals together regardless
of differences.
 It involves restructuring
environment, culture, policy,
and practice.
 It promoting pro-social
 It involves mobilizing resources

within the community

 uses a range of multi-skilled

personnel to assist people in

their learning and working
environment.
 It strives to create strong links

with, clinicians, caregivers,

disability services providers
and relevant support agencies
within the wider community.
BARRIERS TO INCLUSION
The major barriers include:

• Negative attitude towards students with

disability and vulnerabilities.

• Economic factors- this is mainly related with

poverty of family, community and society at
large

• Lack of taking measures to ensure

conformity of implementation of inclusion
practice with policies

• Lack of stakeholders taking responsibility

in collaboration for inclusion.
• Conservative traditions among the
community members about inclusion.

• Lack of knowledge and skills among

teachers regarding inclusive education.

• Rigid curricula, teaching method and

examination systems that do not
consider students with divers needs and
ability differences.
• Fragile democratic institutions that
could not promote inclusion

• Inadequate resources
• Inaccessibility of social and
physical environments

• Using inclusive models that may be

imported from other countries.
 CHAPTER THREE
IDENTIFICATION AND
DIFFERENTIATED SERVICES
Learning Outcomes
• At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:
• Discuss the impact of disability and vulnerability on daily
life of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities.
• Depict needs of persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities
• describe the effects of environment on the life of
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities.
• Describe intervention and rehabilitation approaches for
disabilities and vulnerabilities.
• describe the role technologies in the life of persons with
disabilities
• relate the concept of inclusiveness to their specific
profession
• Evaluate inclusiveness of services provision in their
specific fields of studies
IMPACT OF DISABILITY
AND VULNERABILITY ON
DAILY LIFE
Factors related to the
person
People respond to disabilities
in different ways. Some react
negatively and thus their
quality of life is negatively
affected. Others choose to
THE FOLLOWING ARE OFTEN
CONSIDERED THE MOST SIGNIFICANT
FACTORS IN DETERMINING A
DISABILITY'S IMPACT ON AN INDIVIDUAL.

The Nature of the Disability

Disability can be acquired (a result of
an accident, or acquired disease) or
congenital (present at birth).

• If the disability is acquired, it is more

likely to cause a negative reaction
than a congenital disability.
Congenital disabilities are disabilities
that have always been present, thus
THE INDIVIDUAL’S PERSONALITY

• The individual personality can be typically

positive or negative, dependent or
independent, goal-oriented or laissez-faire.

• Someone with a positive outlook is more

likely to embrace a disability then
someone with a negative outlook.

• Someone who is independent will continue to

be independent.

• someone who is goal- oriented will continue

to set and pursue goals.
THE MEANING OF THE DISABILITY
TO THE INDIVIDUAL

• Does the individual define

himself/herself by his/her looks
or physical characteristics? If so,
he/she is more likely to feel
defined by his/her disability and
thus it will have a negative
impact.
THE INDIVIDUAL’S
CURRENT LIFE
CIRCUMSTANCES
• The individual‘s independence or
dependence on others (parents).

• The economic status of the individual or

the individual's caregivers, the individual's
education level.

• If the individual is happy with their current

life circumstance, they are more likely to
embrace their disability, whereas if they
are not happy with their circumstances,
THE INDIVIDUAL'S SUPPORT
SYSTEM

• The individual‘s support from

family, a significant other,
friends, or social groups.

• If so, he/she will have an easier

time coping with a disability and
thus will not be affected
negatively by their disability.
Common effects of a disability
may include but not limited to
• Health conditions of the person
• Mental health issues
• Loss of freedom and independence
• Frustration and anger at having to rely on other
people
• practical problems including transport, choice of
activities, accessing buildings; unemployment;
• problems with learning and academic study; loss
of self-esteem and confidence, especially in
social situations. But all these negative effects
are due to restricted environments, not due to
impairments.
Disability and vulnerabilities can
limit or restrict one or more
Activities of Daily Living , including
• moving from one place to another
• maintaining a position
• interacting with the environment
• communicating
• feeding
• perceiving the external world
 Economic Factors and Disability
• people with few economic assets are more likely to
acquire pathologies that may be disabling.
• economic status affects whether pathology will proceed
to impairment.
• a lack of resources can adversely affect the ability of an
individual to function with a disabling condition.
• economic resources can limit the options and abilities of
someone who requires personal assistance services or
certain physical accommodations.
• The individual also may not be able to access the
appropriate rehabilitation services to reduce the degree
of potential disability
• Community can be defined in terms of the micro

system (the local area of the person with the

disabling conditions),

• the meso system (the area beyond the immediate

neighborhood, perhaps encompassing the town), and

• the macro system (a region or nation). Clearly, the

economic status of the region or nation as a whole may

play a more important role than the immediate

microenvironment for certain kinds of disabling

conditions. For example, access to employment among

people with disabling conditions is determined by a

combination of the national and regional labor markets

 Political Factors and Disability

The political system ,through its

role
• in designing public policy, can and does have a
profound impact on the extent to which
impairments and other potentially disabling
conditions will result in disability.

• If the political system is well enforced it will profoundly

improve the prospects of people with disabling
conditions for achieving a much fuller participation in
society,

• Can reduce the font of disability in work and every

 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS AND DISABILITY

• For illustrative purposes four psychological construct's will be

briefly discussed.

• Three social cognitive process (i.e., self-efficacy beliefs,

psychological control, coping patterns) and one personal disposition
(optimism)

• Social Cognition - is defined as understanding of their social world.

• It consists of thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and ways of viewing the
world, others, and ourselves.
i. Self efficacy Beliefs
• Self efficacy is a person’s belief they can succeed at a given task.
• Self efficacy beliefs are concerned with whether or not a person
believes that he or she can accomplish a desired outcome.

• Beliefs about one's abilities affect what a person chooses to do, how
much effort is put into a task, and how long an individual will
endure when there are difficulties.

• Self-efficacy beliefs also affect the person's affective and emotional

responses.
• If a person with high self-efficacy, a person's outlook and mental
health status will remain positive even under stressful and
aversive situations.

• If a person with low self-efficacy, mental health may suffer even

when environmental conditions are favorable.

• The highly self efficacious individual would work harder at tasks

(i.e., in physical or speech therapy), be less likely to give up
when there is a relapse (i.e., continue therapy sessions even when
there is no immediate improvement), and in general, feel more
confident and optimistic about recovery and rehabilitation.
ii. Psychological control, or control beliefs: are thoughts, feelings, and
beliefs regarding one's ability to exert control or change a situation.

• Control belief is the ability to regulate and alter

your responses in order to avoid undesirable
behaviors, increase desirable ones, and achieve
long-term goals.

• The onset of a disabling condition is often followed by a loss or a

potential loss of control.

• What is most critical for adaptive functioning is how a person

responds to this and what efforts the person puts forth to regain
control.
iii. Coping patterns refer to behavioral and cognitive efforts to manage
specific internal or external demands that tax or exceed a person's resources
to adjust.

Coping strategies are behavioral and cognitive tactics

used to manage crises, conditions, and demands that are
appraised as distressing.

• Generally, coping has been studied within the context of stress.

• Having a disabling condition may create stress and demand additional
efforts because of interpersonal or environmental conditions that are not
supportive.

• Several coping strategies may be used when a person confronts a stressful

situation.
• The coping strategies may include the following:
Active, problem-focused attempts to redefine thoughts to become more
positive are associated with favorable outcomes.
 seeking information,
 cognitive restructuring,
 emotional expression,
 threat minimization,
 relaxation,
Passive, avoidant, emotion focused strategies are associated with poorer
outcomes
catastrophizing,
 wish-fulfilling/fantasizing,
distraction, and
self-blame.
• Under conditions in which individuals with disabling
condition uses active and problem – solving coping strategies
to manage their life circumstance, there will be better
functional outcomes across several dimensions (activities of
daily living, and employment) than when passive coping
strategies are used.

• An important component in the coping process is appraisal.

• Appraisals involve beliefs about one's ability to deal with a
situation.
• Appraisal is the sense that one's thoughts and cognition control
how one reacts to a potentially negative situation.

• for example, two people with identical levels of impairment.

• The appraisal that the impairment is disabling will result in
more disability than the appraisal that the impairment is not
disabling, regardless of the objective type and level of
impairment.
iv. Optimism is the general tendency to view the world, others, and
oneself favorably.

• People with an optimistic orientation rather than a pessimistic

orientation are far better across several dimensions.

• Optimists tend to have better self-esteem and less hostility toward

others and tend to use more adaptive coping strategies than pessimists.

• Optimism may reduce symptoms and improve adjustment to illness,

because it is associated with the use of effective coping strategies.

• Optimistic individuals are more likely to cope with impairment by

using the active adaptive coping strategies
 The Family and Disability
• The family can be either an enabling or a disabling factor for a
person with a disabling condition.
• family relationships often are most central and families often
provide the main sources of support.
• This support may be instrumental, informational (providing
advice or referrals), or emotional (giving love and support).
• provide services of housekeeping and transportation
• provide personal assistance in activities of daily living.
• provide economic support to help with the purchase of
assistive technologies and to pay for personal assistance
• provide emotional support
that families may also be disabling. Some families promote
dependency.
• the person with the potentially disabling condition is not
allowed to develop to his or her fullest potential.
• Families may also not provide needed environmental
services and resources.
 NEEDS OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES
AND VULNERABILITIES.
• People with disabilities do not all share a single experience, even
of the same impairment.

• Maslow has identified five categories of needs, with different

priority levels, in the following order: Survival (physiological),
Safety, Social needs, Esteem, and Self-actualization (fulfillment).

• The survival needs are formed by the physiological needs

and include the biological requirements for feeding,
performing hygiene, sleeping, ADL, and so on.
• When disabilities and vulnerabilities fulfill their survival
needs, they will look for situations that keep them safe, before
moving up the chain and fulfill their needs to be part of
society and to achieve.

• As an example of needs in terms of safety, consider a person

with visual impairment who wishes to cross the street safely.

• In contrast, for the elderly, at risk and street children safety

might represent the ability to obtain emergency help after
falling and not being able to stand again.
• Social need. For example, a person with a hearing impairment
suffers from a diminution of social contact, while someone
with a motor disability feels excluded from social activities.

• Esteem is often related to the capability of achieving things,

contributing to a work activity and being autonomous. In
particular, disabilities and vulnerabilities in a dependent
situation feel the need for increased autonomy, as well as the
opportunity to prove their worth to themselves and others
through work or other activities.
socio-emotional, psychological, physical and social
environmental and economic needs in general:
• Full access to the Environment (towns, countryside &
buildings),
• Technical aids and equipment,
• Equal opportunities for Employment etc …
Persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities have socio-
emotional, psychological, physical and social environmental and
economic needs in general. The following list but not last are
basic needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities to
ensure equality for all within our society.
a) Full access to the Environment (towns, countryside &
buildings)
b) An accessible Transport system
c) Technical aids and equipment
d) Accessible/adapted housing
e) Personal Assistance and support
f) Inclusive Education and Training
g) An adequate Income

h) Equal opportunities for

Employment

i) Appropriate and accessible

Information

j) Advocacy (towards self-advocacy)

k) Counseling

l) Appropriate and Accessible Health

Care
 SOCIAL NEEDS OF PERSONS WITH
DISABILITIES AND VULNERABILITIES
• Social protection plays a key role in realizing
the rights of persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities of all ages

• providing them with an adequate standard of

living,

• a basic level of income security; thus reducing

levels of poverty and vulnerability.

• have a major role in promoting their

independence and inclusion
 SOCIAL PROTECTION
MEASURES MAY INCLUDE
• These social protection measures may include
Poverty reduction schemes;

Cash transfer programs

Social and health insurance
Public work programs
Housing programs
Disability pensions and mobility grants.
The right of persons with disabilities to social protection is
recognized by:

• the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR),

• the 1966 International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) and, more
specifically,

• the 2006 UN
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD).

• Furthermore, the
Social Protection Floors Recommendation (No. 202)
 GENDER AND DISABILITY
• For the male and female with disabilities and vulnerable groups,
work is universally seen as important, whether paid work or
voluntary.

• When the work interests of men with disabilities are similar to those
of others around them, their identity as a ‘man‘ becomes more
valuable to the community.

• Many of male and females with disabilities have creativity and

skill in finding ways to do things and consequently being able to
build friendships with other men in their communities.
Work, particularly paid work, is also important for many of the
female contributors.

• Women with disabilities have been described as being doubly

marginalised on account of their disability and their gender.

• They may be more vulnerable to poverty and social exclusion, and

often have limited social, political and economic opportunities and
lack of access to basic services.

• Women with disabilities may also be at greater risk of sexual and

physical violence and abuse.

• Girls with disabilities often experience discrimination, for example

in education and family life.
 Identity and Disability
• Disability as part of an individual‘s identity is seen by some as a
struggle.

• This is often two fold: internally to individuals and their sense of

self and, too often, in the way they are perceived and constructed
by those around them.

• An acquired disability is experienced as challenging the nature of

one‘s internal pre-established identity and as a struggle to change the
perceptions and attitudes of others and the physical environment in
which a person lives.

• Finding ways to gain value‘ in the local community with a disability

is an ongoing and, too often, difficult journey.
 BELONGINGNESS AND DISABILITY
• Belonging involves an attachment to place, relationships
with others, a sense of safety, common values and a shared
and/or developing history.

• Belonging is also an internal sense of being at home

in one‘s own body and mind.

• Persons with disabilities and vulnerable groups have

struggled to come to terms with a body and mind
which seem unfamiliar to them, in which they have to
make adjustments or accommodations both for
themselves and in terms of their relationships with
• This internal negotiation and navigation shape their engagement
with their social worlds, particularly in rural communities.

• Family relationships as a means of connecting to community and

being known by others, and knowing others outside the family are
important.

• For people with disabilities, rurality was once the site of exclusion,
rather than belonging, where identity and gender were disregarded
in favor of ensuring protection of people with disabilities and of
the society in which they lived.
 Intersectionality and disability
It is the acknowledgement that everyone has their own unique
experiences of discrimination and oppression and we must consider
everything and anything that can marginalize people – gender, race,
class, sexual orientation, physical ability, etc.

 Social structures and norms,

 Age matters,
 The wider contextual values and social changes,
 Economic changes, and Poverty
NB! The above factors intersect deeply with each other and have
Why people with disabilities migrated from countryside to urban
areas?

• Because, People with disabilities and marginalized groups feel

isolated.

• Some persons with disabilities have actively sought to migrate to

urban environments, to escape from the confines and constraints of
small rural environments and to build broader social networks
away from the farm.

• Economic changes which have led to mass migration from the

rural to the urban and increased the emphasis on citizens‘
economic contribution to society have also had an impact on rural
 THE HEALTH CARE NEEDS OF
PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES
AND VULNERABILITIES
• People with disabilities report seeking more
health care than people without disabilities
and have greater unmet needs.

• People with disabilities are particularly

vulnerable to deficiencies in health care
services.
Depending on the group and setting,
persons with disabilities may
experience greater vulnerability to
A. Secondary conditions: conditions occur in addition to (and are

related to) a primary health condition, and are both

predictable and therefore preventable.

B. Co-morbid conditions: conditions occur in addition to (and

are unrelated to) a primary health condition associated with

disability.

C. Age-related conditions: The ageing process for some

groups of people with disabilities begins earlier than usual.

D. Engaging in health risk behaviors: Some studies have

indicated that people with disabilities have higher rates of risky

behaviors such as smoking, poor diet and physical inactivity.

BARRIERS TO HEALTH CARE FOR
PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES
AND VULNERABLE GROUPS
• People with disabilities encounter a range of barriers
when they attempt to access health care including the
following:

a) Prohibitive costs:
Affordability of health services and transportation are
two main reasons why people with disabilities do not
receive needed health care in low-income countries.

32-33% of non-disabled people compared to 51-53% of

people with disabilities are unable to afford health care.
 B) LIMITED AVAILABILITY
OF SERVICES:
• The lack of appropriate services for
people with disabilities is a significant
barrier to health care.

• For example, lack of services

especially in the rural area is the most
significant barrier to using health
facilities.
C) PHYSICAL BARRIERS:
• Uneven access to buildings
(hospitals, health centers)
• inaccessible medical equipment
• poor signage
• narrow doorways
• internal steps
• inadequate bathroom facilities
• inaccessible parking areas create
barriers to health care facilities.
• For example, women with mobility
difficulties are often unable to access
breast and cervical cancer screening
because examination tables are not
height-adjustable and mammography
equipment only accommodates women
who are able to stand.
 D) Inadequate skills and
knowledge of health workers:
• Health care provider skills are inadequate to
meet people with disabilities needs, being
treated badly and being denied care.

• People with disabilities were more than twice as

likely to report finding health care provider skills
inadequate to meet their needs, four times more
likely to report being treated badly and nearly
three times more likely to report being denied
care.
ADDRESSING FOR INCLUSIVE
BARRIERS TO HEALTH CARE
Governments and professionals can improve
health outcomes for people with disabilities by

improving access to quality

Providing affordable health care
services, which make the best use of
available resources.

improving all health care system.

A) POLICY AND LEGISLATION

• Assess existing policies and services, identify

priorities to reduce health inequalities and
plan improvements for access and inclusion.

• Establish health care standards related to

care of persons with disabilities with
enforcement mechanisms.
B) FINANCING
• Where private health insurance
dominates health care financing,
ensure that people with disabilities
are covered and consider measures to
make the premiums affordable.
• Ensure that people with disabilities
benefit equally from public health care
programs.
• Usefinancial incentives to encourage
health-care providers.
C) SERVICE DELIVERY
• Provide a broad range of modifications
and adjustments (reasonable accommodation)
to facilitate access to health care services.
• Empower people with disabilities to maximize
their health by providing information,
training, and peer support.
• Promote CBR to facilitate access for disabled
people to existing services.
• Identify groups that require alternative service
delivery models to improve access to health
care.
D) HUMAN RESOURCES

• Integrate disability inclusion

education into undergraduate and
continuing education for all health-
care professionals.

• Train community workers so that they

can play a role in preventive health
care services.
 DISABILITY, VULNERABILITY AND THE
ENVIRONMENT

• Environmental factors may be conceived of as having two

major parts:

the physical environment and

the social and psychological environments.
• The physical environment may be further subdivided
conceptually into the natural environment and the built
environment.

• Both affect the extent to which a disabling condition will be

experienced by the person as a disability
• Three types of attributes of the physical environment need to be in place
to support human performance.

• A) object availability. Objects must be in a location that is useful, at a

level where they can be retrieved, and must be organized to support the
performance of the activity.

• Neither a sink that is too high for a wheelchair user nor a tele
communications device for the deaf (TDD) that is kept at a hotel
reception desk is available.

• B. Accessibility is related to the ability of people to get to a place or to

use a device.

• Accessibility permits a wheelchair user to ride a bus or a Braille user to

read a document.
C. Availability of sensory stimulation regarding the
environment. Sensory stimulation, which can include visual,
tactile, or auditory cues, serves as a signal to promote
responses.

Examples of such cues could include beeping microwaves,

which elicit responses from people without hearing
impairments, or bumpy surfaces on subway platforms, which
tell users with visual impairments to change their location.
 A) THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
• The natural environment may have a major impact on whether a limitation
is disabling.

• The natural environment, including topography and climate, affect whether

or to what degree a functional limitation will be disabling.

• E.g: a person who has severe allergies to ragweed or mold,

which can trigger disabling asthma, can be free of that
condition in climates where those substances do not grow.

• A person who has limited walking ability will be less disabled in a flat
geographical location than he disabled in both places during the winter than
during the summer.
 B) THE HUMAN MADE ENVIRONMENT

• The physical environment is a complex interaction of built-in

objects.

• Built objects are created and constructed by humans and vary

widely in terms of their complexity, size, and purpose.

• Built objects are created for utilitarian reasons and also for an outlet
for creativity.

• For example: built objects such as dishwashers and computers have

the potential to enhance human performance or to create barriers.
 Disability, vulnerability and the
Environment
Type of Environment
Type of
Factor
Natural Environment Built Environment

Dry climate Ramps

Flat terrain Adequate lighting

Enabling
Clear paths Braille signage

Snow Steps
Disabling
Rocky terrain Low-wattage lighting

High humidity Absence of flashing light

alerting systems
 RURAL ENVIRONMENT, DISABILITY AND
VULNERABILITY
• Persons with disabilities, vulnerable and marginalized groups
living in rural areas have double disadvantaged due to their
impairments and vulnerabilities and unfavorable physical and
social environment.

• These group of people have been excluded from agricultural

works (productivity) due its nature high demand to labour and
lack of technologies and well organized support from
professional.
CREATING WELCOMING (INCLUSIVE) ENVIRONMENT

• External environmental modifications can take many forms. These

can include assistive devices, alterations of a physical structure,
object modification, and task modification.

• Rehabilitation must place emphasis on addressing

the environmental needs of people with disabling
conditions.

• Environmental strategies can be effective in helping people

function independently and not be limited in their social
participation, in work, leisure or social interactions as a spouse,
parent, friend, or coworker
Examples of Environmental Modification

1. Mobility aids includes

 Hand Orthosis,
 Mouth stick,
 Prosthetic limb,
 Wheelchair (manual and/or motorized),
 Canes, Crutches and Braces

2. Communication aids
 Telephone amplifier or TDD

 Voice-activated computer

 Closed or real-time captioning

 Computer-assisted note taker

Conti……
 Print enlarger
 Reading machines
 Books on tape
 Sign language or oral interpreters
 Braille writer
 Cochlear implant
 Communication boards FM, audio-induction loop, or infrared
systems
3. Accessible structural elements
 Ramps Elevators
 Wide doors
 Safety bars
 Nonskid floors
 Sound-reflective building materials
 Enhanced lighting
 Electrical sockets that meet appropriate reach ranges
 Hardwired flashing alerting systems Increased textural
contrast
4. Accessible features
 Built up handles
 Voice-activated computer
 Automobile hand controls
5. Job accommodations
 Simplification of task
 Flexible work hours
 Rest breaks
 Splitting job into parts
 Relegate nonessential functions to others
6. Differential use of personnel
 Personal care assistants
 Note takers
 Secretaries Editors
 Sign language interpreters
 Impact of the Social and Psychological
Environments on the enabling-disabling process
• The social environment is conceptualized to include
cultural, political, and economic factors.

• The psychological environment is the intrapersonal

environment.

Culture and the Disabling Process

• Culture includes both material culture (things and the

rules for producing them) and nonmaterial culture (norms
or rules, values, symbols, language, ideational systems
such as science or religion, and arts such as dance, crafts,
and humor).
• Cultures have an impact on the types of pathologies that
will occur as well as on their recognition as pathologies.
 DISABILITY INCLUSIVE
INTERVENTION AND
REHABILITATION SERVICES
• A One-size-fits-all‟ approach to provide services for persons with disabilities
and vulnerability groups is no longer enough.

• Including people with disabilities in everyday activities and

encouraging them to have roles similar to peoples who do not
have a disability is disability inclusion.

• Inclusion should lead to increased participation in socially

expected life roles and activities such as being a student,
worker, friend, community member, patient, spouse, partner,
or parent.

• Disability inclusion means provision of differentiated services

for persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities.
• Differentiated service means a multiple service delivery model
that can satisfy the most needs of persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities.

• Socially expected activities may include

engaging in social activities,
using public resources such as transportation and
libraries, moving about within communities, receiving
adequate health care, having relationships, and enjoying
other day-to-day activities.
• Persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities are often
excluded (either directly or indirectly) from development
processes and humanitarian action because of physical,
attitudinal and institutional barriers.

• The effects of this exclusion are increased inequality,

discrimination and marginalization.

• To change this, a disability inclusion approach must be

implemented.
• The twin-track approach involves:
1. Mainstreaming disability as a cross-cutting
issue within all key programs and services
(education, health, relief and social services,
microfinance, infrastructure and camp improvement,
protection, and emergency response) to ensure
these programs and services are inclusive, equitable,
non- discriminatory, and do not create or reinforce
barriers.

2. Supporting the specific needs of vulnerable

groups with disabilities to ensure they have equal
 Strategies to Disability inclusive intervention and rehabilitation

Prevention

• Prevention of conditions associated with disability and vulnerability is a

development issue.

• Attention to environmental factors – including nutrition, preventable

diseases, safe water and sanitation, safety on roads and in workplaces – can
greatly reduce the incidence of health conditions leading to disability.

• A public health approach distinguishes:

• Primary prevention – actions to avoid or remove the cause of a health
problem in an individual or a population before it arises. It includes
health promotion and specific protection (for example, HIV education).
• Secondary prevention (early intervention) – actions to detect a
health and disabling conditions at an early stage in an individual
or a population, facilitating cure, or reducing or preventing
spread, or reducing or preventing its long-term effects (for
example, supporting women with intellectual disability to access
breast cancer screening).

• Tertiary prevention (rehabilitation) – actions to reduce the

impact of an already established disease by restoring function and
reducing disease related complications (for example, rehabilitation
for children with musculoskeletal impairment).
Implement effective Intervention and Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation interventions promote a comprehensive process to
facilitate attainment of the optimal physical, psychological,
cognitive, behavioral, social, vocational and educational status
within the capacity allowed by the anatomic or physiologic
impairment, personal desires and life plans, and environmental
(dis)advantages for a person with a disability.

• Rehabilitation is a process designed to optimize function and

improve the quality of life of those with disabilities.

• It involves multiple participants, and it can take on many forms.

• Components of Rehabilitation Interventions
• Rehabilitation interventions usually involve multiple disciplines.
1. Physicians
• The physician‘s role is to manage the medical and health conditions of
the patient/consumer within the rehabilitation process, providing
diagnosis, treatment, or management of disability-specific issues.
2. Occupational therapists (OTs)
• It is typically work with patients/consumers through functional
activities in order to increase their ability to participate in activities of
daily living (ADLs) and instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs),
in school and work environments, using a variety of techniques.
Typical techniques include functional training, exercise,
and home/education/worksite assessments and
recommendations.
3. Physical therapists (PTs) assess movement dysfunction and use
treatment interventions such as exercise, functional training, manual
therapy techniques, gait and balance training, assistive and adaptive
devices and equipment, and physical agents, including electrotherapy,
massage, and manual traction.

• The outcome focus of interventions is improved mobility, decreased

pain, and reduced physical disability.

4. Speech and language therapist : assess, treat, and help to prevent

disorders related to speech, language, cognition, voice,
communication, swallowing, and fluency.
5. Audiologists identify, assess, manage, and interpret test results
related to disorders of hearing, balance, and other systems related
to hearing.
6. Social workers in health settings may provide case management
or coordination for persons with complex medical conditions and
needs; help patients navigate the paths between different levels of
care; refer patients to legal, financial, housing, or employment
services; assist patients with access to entitlement benefits,
transportation assistance, or community based services; identify,
assess, refer, or offer treatment for such problems as depression,
anxiety, or substance abuse; or provide education or support
programming for health or related social problems.
7. Rehabilitation psychology is a specialized area of psychology that
assists the individual (and family) with any injury, illness, or
disability that may be chronic, traumatic, and/or congenital in
achieving optimal physical, psychological, and interpersonal
functioning
8. Neuropsychology is particular importance in the care of
individuals who have sustained brain injuries.
9. Recreational therapists referred to as therapeutic recreation
specialists, provide treatment services and recreation activities for
individuals with disabilities or illnesses.
10. Rehabilitation counselors can evaluate and coordinate the
services needed, provide counseling to assist people in coping with
limitations caused by the disability, assist with exploration of future
life activities and return-to-work plans, and provide advocacy for
needs.
 11. Orthotists and Prosthetists
• The orthotist fabricates and designs custom braces or orthotics to
improve the function of those with neuromuscular or
musculoskeletal impairments, or to stabilize an injury or
impairment through the healing process.
• The prosthetist works with individuals with partial or total limb
absence or amputation to enhance their function by use of a
prosthesis (i.e., artificial limb, prosthetic device).
 Community-Based Rehabilitation
• It is a strategy that can address the needs of peoples with disabilities with in
their communities

• It is a common sense strategy for enhancing the quality of life of peoples with
disabilities by improving services delivery in order to reach all in need by
providing more equitable opportunities and by promoting and protecting their
rights .

• It is a strategy within general community development for rehabilitation,

equalization of opportunities and social inclusion of all children and adults
with disabilities.

• It is implemented through the combined efforts of people with disabilities

themselves, their families and communities, and the appropriate health,
• CBR involves the following elements:
• The participation of people with disabilities and their
representatives at all stages of the development of the
program

• The formulation and implementation of national policies to

support the equal participation of people with disabilities

• The establishment of a system for program management

• CBR focuses on strengthening the capacity of peoples with
disabilities, and their families.

• CBR focuses on challenging negative views and barriers in

society to enable equal rights and opportunities
Major Objectives of Community Based Rehabilitation
are
 empowered to maximize their physical and mental abilities,
 have access to regular services and opportunities and become active,
contributing members of their communities and then societies.
 promotes the human rights of people with disabilities through attitude
changes within the community.
 to include people who have disabilities from all types of impairments,
including difficulty hearing, speaking, moving, learning or behaving.
 includes all age groups: children, youth, adults and older people.
 Inclusiveness and Information Technology (ICT)

• Effective access to information is crucial in facilitating the

participation of citizens in civil society.

• For persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities, technological

developments such as

• the proliferation of the Internet and

• the provision of services for accessing digital television
such as audio description (video description), closed signing,
and the availability of subtitles (captions) in live broadcasts
enabled by speech-to text technologies can make an important
contribution to facilitating independent living.
• Persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities still face significant
barriers in accessing ICTs.
• These barriers include,
• Inter alia,
• poorly designed Web sites (e.g., with graphics not
readable by computerized screen readers, with
information that can be accessed only by the use of the
mouse rather than the keyboard),
• limited availability of subtitles on webcasts,
• the use of multiple remote controls for digital television,
and
• difficult to navigate on-screen displays.
 Inclusiveness and Assistive
Technology
• Worldwide the number of persons with disabilities,
vulnerabilities and marginalized groups is increasing
alarmingly because of
• population aging, accident,
• global warming and climate change,
• medical advancement, humanitarian crises,
• natural disaster, conflict and
• increases in chronic health conditions, among
other causes.
 Assistive Technology (Technical Aid)
• It is any product, instrument, equipment ortechnical system used by a
disabled person, especially produced or generally available, preventing,
compensating, monitoring, relieving or neutralizing the impairment,
disability or handicap.

• It is any item, piece of equipment or product system, whether acquired

commercially, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain,
or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities.

• Assistive technology service is any service that directly assists an

individual with a disability in the selection, acquisition, or use, of an
assistive technology device.
• AT is products, devices or equipment that is used to maintain,
increase or improve the functional capabilities of people with
disabilities.

• Assistive Device is equipment that enables an individual who

requires assistance to perform the daily activities essential to
maintain health and autonomy and to live as full a life as possible.

• Such equipment may include, for example, motorized scooters,

walkers, walking sticks, grab rails and tilt-and-lift chairs

• Examples of mobility-enhancing equipment include wheelchairs,

communication via mobile telephones and computers, and voice-
activated smart devices to enhance environmental control.
 The role of AT in daily life of persons with disabilities

• Assistive Technology can

• increase the autonomy, independence,
• Increase quality of life and
• enable the integration of social, professional, and environmental
aspects of life
• being socially active and enjoying self-esteem and dignity.
• access to services
• enhance the performance of their daily living tasks, including
communication, vision, hearing, recreation, movement, seating
and mobility, reading, learning, writing, and studying, as well as
controlling and accessing their environment.
 AT and User Needs: A Classification Scheme
A. People with Communication Disabilities refers to be multiple
difficulties including: Speech mechanism problem, Language
processing, Hearing, Vision, Motor skills.

Needs & Barriers: Safety Technologies, Self-care and medication

management, social needs socialization, access to information
technology, communication and interaction with environment, access
to public administration and facilities (authorities, banks, public
services), shopping recreation and leisure problems with speech,
writing, esteem independence and employment.
Assistive technologies:

• Mobile systems [phones, wearable electronics, computers, augmentative a

alliterative communication (including I/O interfaces) (adaptable/configurable
interfaces, tactile interfaces),

• vibrotactile displays reading screen, speech technologies, augmentative–

alliterative communication.

• Socialization and entertainment tools (special games, virtual companion‘s

videoconferences).

• Medication organizers (medication reminder/management).

• Speech technology (audio technology for I/O interfaces and control, writing
translators, text–speech translators,

• transportation (public transportation facilities, smart environments home control,

pervasive computing, context awareness, middleware)

• Shopping tools (Internet access) and education tools

B. People with Cognitive Disabilities: The impairments may
include: Cognition, memory loss and forgetfulness

Needs & Barriers are survival, hygiene (toileting, bathing, laundry);

feeding (food preparation, eating, drinking), remembering,
housekeeping—home cleaning, safety, safety technologies, safety of
environment, self-care and medication management, social needs,
socialization, navigation, access to information technology, education,
communication and interaction with environment, shopping, esteem,
independence, employment, recreation and leisure
Assistive technologies may include
• Mobile systems (phones, wearable electronics, and computers),
• socialization and entertainment tools (special games, virtual
companions, videoconferences),
• Augmentative and alliterative communication (including I/O
interfaces), adaptable/configurable interfaces, organizer and
reminder assistants for timekeeping),
• Medications, (appointments, hygiene, etc., electronic organizers,
medication reminder/management, procedure assistants,
transportation public transportation facilities)
• Communication aids (communicators, multimedia procedure,
assistants, large-screen programmable phones, electronic
information organizers, electronic mail)
C. People with Motor Disabilities impairment include Upper-limbs
difficulties/ dexterity, lower limb deficiencies
Needs & Barriers are the need for mobility, working in the
inaccessible environment

• Assistive technologies may include orthotics (cognitive orthotics),

smart environments, home control, shopping tools (internet access)
and education tools
 AT and the Marketplace
Markets for assistive technologies follow the general marketing rule that products
introduced into a market influence the demand and growth of markets for such
products.

 In practice, AT products can either represent a barrier to demand or become an

engine of demand.

This relationship between Persons with disabilities and Vulnerabilities and AT in the
marketplace follows one of two strategies: (1) trivialization or (2) specialization,

Specialization is based on the development of products or services that are adapted for
Persons with disabilities.

• In practice, the AT industry considers Persons with disability populations as solvent

autonomous markets.
• Developed products are adapted for Persons with disabilities needs,
so the satisfaction of each target population or subpopulation is
good, thereby supporting further product development or adaptation.

• Trivialization considers Persons with disabilities as an

augmentation/increase of the market for devices used by people
without disabilities.

• In this strategy, industry does not target Persons with disabilities and
Vulnerabilities populations directly.

• This strategy targets a much larger market but does not consider user
satisfaction among Persons with disabilities and Vulnerabilities.
 AT and Design Methods

• Product developers must be fully aware of needs, wants, and

capabilities of Persons with disabilities and Vulnerabilities
populations, as well as limitations associated with each handicap.

Most widely known design methods are:

• User-centered design is a set of techniques and processes that

enable developers to focus on users, within the design process.

NB. In practice, users are involved in the development process,

depending on their skills and experience, and their interaction is
facilitated by a domain expert.
• Universal design (also called design for all) is the design of products
and environments to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent
possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design.
• Here, the design process is guided and constrained by a number of
objectives: accessibility, adaptability, transgenerational applicability,
and/or universal applicability or appeal.
• Universal design does not emphasize differences among persons
with disabilities, or between persons with disabilities and the general
population.
• In practice, products are developed to meet the needs of average
users.
• If a user is different, significantly, from the average population, (e.g.,
a person with a significant handicap), then, the product will provide
poor user satisfaction
 INCLUSIVE JOB OPPORTUNITIES
AND EMPLOYMENT
• The right to work is fundamental to
being a full and equal member of
society, and it applies to all persons,
regardless of whether or not they
have a disability.

• It also enables people to build

self-esteem
form social relationships
BARRIERS OF EMPLOYMENT
• Prevented from working due to:
 Inaccessible transportation services
 lack of accessible information and
communications services.
 preference of employers for candidates
without disabilities.
 Legal stipulations that prevent individuals
with particular impairments from working
in certain fields.
 discouragement of family and community
members.
MAJOR TYPES OF BARRIERS
A) Attitudes and Discrimination

• Employers may be reluctant to

hire persons with disabilities
based on the perception that
they are less productive or less
capable of carrying out their jobs
than others.
• Colleagues of persons with
 B) ACCESSIBILITY

•A lack of
physical
features such
as ramps and
elevators can
prevent
• The lack of accessible
information and
communication
infrastructure in
workplaces such as:
 clear signage
 computers equipped
with software such as
• screen-readers
• devices such as Braille
displays can prevent
persons with print and
intellectual disabilities
from being able to gain
employment.
• Lack of access to sign language
interpretation can hinder the employment
of deaf people.
• informational and
physical design of the
workplace itself
• inaccessibility of public
environments and
crucially, transport
can prevent persons
with disabilities from
being able to travel to
work, receive
information about job
opportunities, and
communicate with
employers.
C) EDUCATION AND TRAINING

• Have disproportionately restricted access to

education and training. This severely limits
their job opportunities due to a lack of skills
and knowledge that are relevant to find or
retain a job.

• They are less likely to attend school or stay

in school.

• They are often prevented from being able

to acquire the human capital necessary
 D) SOCIAL NETWORKS
• Barrier to employment for persons with
disabilities can be their more limited
social networks.

• Lack of social networks greatly bounds

process of searching for work and
options.

• These limited networks are part of the

broader cultural and attitudinal barriers
E) WOMEN DISABILITIES

• In many developing countries including

Ethiopia, as a result of continued prejudices
both towards women and surrounding
disability, women with disabilities are doubly
discriminated against in the labor market.

• Encounter worse working conditions and

lower pay as compared with other women, as
well as men with disabilities.

• Women with disabilities are also less likely to

F) LEGAL BARRIERS

• In some countries, people must

be considered physically and
mentally healthy ‘sound’ to
represent oneself in a court of
law, to occupy official positions,
or to use certain public services.
G) INFLEXIBLE WORK
ARRANGEMENTS
• In some cases, persons with
disabilities might prove to be
competent and productive employees,
but are nonetheless unable to perform
certain tasks. E.g.

• scheduling the work day.

• may have particular transportation
issues or other needs that require a
H. THE BENEFIT TRAP
• Ironically be imposed by social protection
schemes ultimately designed to support them.

• These schemes can encourage individuals to

stay out of the labor force if they are structured
in such a way as to make the receipt of benefits
contingent on the inability to work. Therefore,
even if persons with disabilities believe that
they can work, they may choose not to in order
to continue receiving disability benefits.
STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE EMPLOYMENT FOR
PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES AND
VULNERABILITIES

• There a number of strategies that is

available to governments in
respective sector as they work to
improve the employment prospects of
persons with disabilities, vulnerable
and marginalized groups.
 A) ANTI-DISCRIMINATION LEGISLATION

• These laws make it illegal to discriminate

against an individual on the basis of
disability in a range of areas including:
employment; education; access to public
buildings; the provision of goods and
services, and political processes.
• It protect persons with disabilities from
discriminatory actions in hiring and
termination of contracts.
• affirm the right of persons with disabilities
to access employment on an equal basis
B) VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
AND TRAINING
• Technical vocational education and training
(TVET) programs can help to ensure that the
workforce has the skills and knowledge
necessary to obtain and retain a job.

• improving access to employment.

• Provide training programs that the content
of such training programs is geared to labor
market demands
C) WAGE SUBSIDIES

• Wage subsidies cover a portion of employees’

wages, usually for a limited period of time, as
a way to lessen the risk perceived by
employers of hiring persons with disabilities.

• Since wage subsidies directly target the

recruitment process of private firms, they
enable employers to overcome their
reservations about hiring employees with
disabilities.
D) SUPPORTED EMPLOYMENT
• These programs integrate persons with disabilities into the
open labor market by providing direct, on-the-job support
to employees with disabilities.
• One common type of support is a job coach. Job coaches
provide on- site, individually tailored assistance to help
persons with disabilities perform their jobs.
• Coaches also help persons with disabilities adjust to their
working environment, and assist in determining which
accessibility accommodations are necessary.
• Supported employment requires employers to be open to
having such services on site, and to be willing to work
cooperatively with job coaches and other service
providers.
 E) WORKPLACE
ACCOMMODATION
SCHEMES
• Reduce the costs to employers of making
workplaces more accessible to persons with
disabilities.
• Minimize employer reluctance to hire
persons with disabilities.
• There are two ways government programs
can decrease or even eliminate those costs.
[Link] tax breaks
2. Tax credits forexpenditures
undertaken to make such adjustments.
F) WORKERS’ COMPENSATION

• These programs are designed to

address the issue of occupational
injuries and illnesses.

• They provide cash and medical

benefits to employees whose
disability is acquired in the
workplace.
G) QUOTA SYSTEMS
• Quota systems mandate that firms
hire at minimum a certain percentage
of persons with disabilities.

• Quotas can prove difficult to both

monitor and enforce.

• By obliging employers to hire a

specific number of persons with
disabilities, quota systems perpetuate
H) SHELTERED WORKSHOPS
• These programs only hire persons with
disabilities, and structure jobs around the
perceived abilities of each employee.

• The program serve as a training ground for

the eventual transition of employees to the
open labor market.

• Their work are seen as charitable enterprises

and are funded.

• Government can serve their citizens with

I) PRIVATE SECTOR INITIATIVES
J) EMPLOYER NETWORKS
The main activities of employer organizations
include:
• Raising awareness and building capacity on
disability inclusion.
• Providing information and tools on disability and
employment.
• Influencing policy on the employment and
training of persons with disabilities.
• Providing career development opportunities
and organizing vocational training.
• Linking jobseekers with disabilities and
employers.
K) SUPPORT DISABILITY-
INCLUSIVE BUSINESS
It is recommended that governments:

A. Introduce programs to raise awareness

among private employers of the business
case for hiring persons with disabilities.

B. Support employers‘ organizations and

networks to share inclusion practices and
build their capacities to harness the
potential of employees with disabilities.
L) SOCIAL ENTERPRISES
Social enterprises are businesses that seek to
advance a social cause whilst being financially
self-sustainable.

• Aimed to maximize social impact.

• Consciously seek to hire persons with
disabilities.

• Address issues and barriers affecting the

lives of persons with disabilities
 M) SUPPORT PERSONS WITH
DISABILITIES IN THE
WORKPLACE
It is recommended that governments:
A. Promote flexible working arrangements to ensure
that qualified, productive individuals are not
unnecessarily prevented from doing certain jobs.
B. Provide funding support and tax incentives to start
ups and social enterprise initiatives
C. Provide subsidies or tax incentives that support the
inclusion of persons with disabilities in the
workplace.
D. Develop job coach accreditation and training
standards
 N) BUILDING A MORE
INCLUSIVE SOCIETY
It is recommended that governments:
A. Develop and implement accessibility
standards for the physical environment in
line with universal design, including public
buildings and transport services.
B. Promote and provide knowledge, information
and communication services in accessible
formats, in line with universal design.
C. Foster greater social inclusion by establishing
 O) BOOST EDUCATION AND
TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES
It is recommended that governments:
A. Make education systems more inclusive, both
to make schools more accessible to children
with disabilities, and to modify instruction to
meet the needs of all children.
B. Mainstream disability inclusion into technical
vocational education and training (TVET)
programs, to support persons with disabilities
to acquire knowledge and skills necessary to
find and retain decent work.
 P) BREAK DOWN ATTITUDINAL BARRIERS
AND CHALLENGE DISCRIMINATION
For governments to better understand and
challenge attitudinal barriers, it is essential
to:
A. Undertake research to examine the
causes and manifestations of
discriminatory attitudes towards persons
with disabilities across society.
B. Launch public awareness campaigns and
programs to promote the rights of persons
with disabilities.
C. Conduct disability awareness training
 CHAPTER FOUR
PROMOTING INCLUSIVE
CULTURE
Definition of Inclusive Culture
Inclusion is a sense of belonging, connection
and community at work.

Inclusive organizations help people feel

welcomed, known, valued and encouraged
to bring their whole, unique selves to work.
 Culture is the ideas, customs, and
social behavior of a particular people
or society.
 Culture plays a huge role in shifting
the diversity need and forming truly
inclusive environments.
INCLUSIVE CULTURE

• Involves the full and successful integration of

diverse people into a workplace or industry.

• Extend beyond basic or token presence of

workers who have disabilities.

• Encompass both formal and informal policies and

practices, and involve several core values:

A. Representation
B. Receptivity
C. Fairness
DIMENSIONS OF INCLUSIVE
CULTURE

There are three dimensions/ elements of an

inclusive culture:

1. Universal Design

2. Recruitment, Training and Advancement

Opportunities

3. Workplace Accommodations and

Accessibility: Policy & Practice
1) UNIVERSAL DESIGN

Refers to the construction of

structures, spaces, services,
communications and resources
that are organically accessible to
a range of people with and
without disabilities, without further
need for modification or
A few examples of ways universal design
practices may apply in the workplace
include:
 Providing manuals, materials and forms to
all employees in a variety of digital
formats.
 Building workspaces accessible to
people who use wheelchairs or other
assistive devices.
 Providing employees with a variety of
flexible schedule and work options.
2. RECRUITMENT, TRAINING, &
ADVANCEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

A. Recruitment:
Effective recruitment of people with
disabilities involves two components:

I. Accessible outreach and hiring practices.

II. Targeted recruitment of workers with

disabilities.
I) ACCESSIBLE OUTREACH AND
HIRING PRACTICES

• Essentially entail making sure that outreach materials,

networking and recruitment sites, communications, and
application processes all include a range of accessible
options, or are free of barriers that might inhibit people
with disabilities from participating.

• Outreach and hiring resources generally should be equally

accessible to workers with and without disabilities.
 II) TARGETED RECRUITMENT OF
WORKERS WITH DISABILITIES.

• Targeted recruitment involves specific outreach to

people with disabilities.

• Enables employers to reach and interview qualified

people with disabilities.

• Helps to ensure that targeted recruitment will be

successful.
B. Training:
Training plays a dual role in the creation of inclusive
workplace culture.

1) Involves the degree to which people with disabilities

have equitable access to training sites, events, and
materials.

2) The training of managers, particularly middle

management, and human resources staff, to work
effectively with all people.
The consequences of inadequate training are:

 reduce job satisfaction

 negative consequences for productivity

and retention.
C. Advancement
In order to have equitable opportunities for promotion and professional
development, like most employees, workers with disabilities typically require
access to mentoring.

 Existing mentoring programs are advertised, implemented and maintained with

attention to inclusion of workers with disabilities.
 Targeted mentoring and coaching programs specifically assist
employees with disabilities. These may include:

 the creation of explicit disability affirmative action policies related to

promotion, targeted professional networking opportunities.

 the establishment of disability affinity networks and related supports to

encourage full integration into the workplace culture.
 3. WORKPLACE ACCOMMODATIONS
AND ACCESSIBILITY: POLICY & PRACTICE

Workplace policies need to

carefully plan for the provision
of reasonable accommodations.

Policy plays a critical role in

generating meaningful inclusion
of people with disabilities.
WHEN ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENESS
OF EXISTING ACCOMMODATIONS POLICIES,
EMPLOYEE EXPERIENCES CAN BE DESCRIBED
BASED ON TWO MEASURES OF EQUITY.

1. Procedural justice
• meaning that employees with disabilities
perceive the accommodations policy as
fair, accessible and functional.
2. Interactional justice
refers to the experience of feeling that
the managers or colleagues with whom
one is interacting are behaving fairly,
reasonably and respectfully.
THE BENEFITS OF INCLUSIVE CULTURES
FOR EMPLOYEES WITH DISABILITIES

 Reduce expenses corresponding to reduced employee turn-over

 Increase worker commitment
 Improve employee health and well-being
 Improve productivity
 Increase employee investment in work performance
 Reduce perception of discrimination and inequity
 Improve cooperation and collaboration between co-workers, and
between employees and management.
 SOME OF THE BENEFITS OF AN INCLUSIVE
ORGANIZATION THAT NEEDS TO BE CONSIDERED:

 Higher Job Satisfaction

 Lower Turnover.

 Higher Productivity

 Higher Employee Morale

 Improve Creativity and Innovation

 Improve Problem-Solving

 Increase Organizational Flexibility.

BUILDING INCLUSIVE COMMUNITY

 Respect all its citizens, gives them full access to

resources, and promotes equal treatment and
opportunity.

 Works to eliminate all forms of discrimination.

 Engages all its citizens in decision-making
processes that affect their lives.

 Values diversity.
 Responds quickly to racist and other
discriminating incidents.
 An inclusive society aims at empowering
and promoting the social, economic, and
political inclusion of all, irrespective of age,
sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin,
religion, economic, or other status.
 It is a society that leaves no one behind.

 Works to ensure that societies are open and

inclusive to all.
 HERE ARE THINGS AN ORGANIZATION
CAN DO TO CREATE A MORE INCLUSIVE
WORKPLACE

A more appealing place to work:

 Appropriately Connect with Employees

 Interact with Different People

 Create Employee Resource Groups

 Place Importance on Inclusion

 Hold Better Meetings

 Invest in Diversity Training

 WHY IS BUILDING AN INCLUSIVE
COMMUNITY IMPORTANT?

 Acts of exclusion and injustice based on

group identity and other factors should not
be allowed to occur and/or continue.

 All people have the right to be part of

decisions that affect their lives and the
groups they belong to.

 Diversity enriches our lives, so it is worth

our while to value our community's diversity.
IT IS IMPORTANT TO CONSIDER THE MOTIVATION BEHIND AN
INDIVIDUAL, A GROUP, OR A COMMUNITY'S DESIRE TO BUILD
AN INCLUSIVE COMMUNITY BECAUSE THE MOTIVATION
AFFECTS THE FOLLOWING:

 Types and sequence of strategies selected

 Resources available: more resources could be mobilized if the
motivation came from a large institution or a local foundation.

 Amount of support and obstruction: if the dominant group in

the community is just as motivated as any other group, there is
likely to be more support. If, it is vise versa, there are likely to be
more barriers.

 Rate of progress: if the major leaders and groups support the

effort, progress is likely to be faster.

 Expected outcomes: if the goal is to raise awareness, everyone

 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN
INCLUSIVE COMMUNITY

 Integrative and cooperative: inclusive communities

bring people together and are places where people and
organizations work together.

 Interactive: inclusive communities have accessible

community spaces that support social interaction.

 Invested
 Diverse: welcome and incorporate diverse people and
cultures into the structures, processes and functions of
daily community life.
 Equitable: make sure that everyone has the means to
live in decent conditions (i.e. income supports,
employment, good housing)
 Accessible and Sensitive: have an array of readily
available and accessible supports and services for the social,
health, and developmental needs of their populations and provide
such supports in culturally sensitive and appropriate ways.
 Participatory: encourage and support the
involvement of all their members in the planning
and decision-making that affects community
conditions and development.

 Safe: ensure both individual and broad

community safety and security so that no one
feels at risk in their homes or moving around the
neighborhood and city.
 CHAPTER FIVE
LEGAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORKS
CONSIDERING PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES

• There are several regional and

international declarations,
conventions, world conferences’
conclusions and recommendations
about the rights of persons with
disabilities for education.
INTERNATIONAL LEGAL
DOCUMENTS

A. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

• This declaration ensures three important rights;

 Right to education (fundamental human rights;
rights that are universal, indivisible,
interconnected and interdependent)

 Right to equalization of opportunities

 Right to participate in society
 B. CONVENTION ON THE
RIGHTS OF THE CHILD

 States the rights of all children to basic

quality primary education

 Make primary education compulsory and

available free to all.

 It assures the rights of the child to education

based on his or her needs, abilities and pace
of effective learning.
 C. CONVENTION AGAINST
DISCRIMINATION IN EDUCATION

• To combat discriminatory treatment in

education

• promote the opportunity of addressing their

learning needs,

• children in disadvantaged situations or who

experience conditions of risk, disability have
the right to education of the same quality and
standard
 D. WORLD DECLARATION ON
EDUCATION FOR ALL (EFA)

• This declaration confirms that every

human being including children,
youth, adults, females, street children,
immigrants, children with disability,…
have right to quality and equity in
education.
E. UN STANDARD RULES OF
EQUALIZATION OF OPPORTUNITIES
FOR PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES

Every individual has equal opportunity for

• participation
• Accessibility
• Education
• Employment
• Income maintenance and social security
• Family life and personal integrity
(marriage, parenthood, sexual
relationship)
F. SALAMANCA FRAME WORK FOR
ACTION

It was declared in an international conference on special

needs education held in Salamanca, Spain in 1994. The
conference emphasized the following principles:
• The right of children including those with temporary and
permanent special education needs to attend school.
• The right of all children to attend school in their home
community
• The right of children to participate in a child-centered
education meeting individual needs
• The right of all children to participate in quality
education that is meaningful for each child.
 G. UN CONVENTION OF THE RIGHT
OF PERSON WITH DISABILITIES
(UNCRPDS)

Article 24/1&2

“States Parties shall, recognize the right of

persons with disabilities to education, … realizing
this right without discrimination and on the basis
of equal opportunity,…ensure an inclusive
education system at all levels… can access an
inclusive, quality and free primary and secondary
education on an equal basis with others in the
community”.
• In this convention, all persons with all types of disabilities
must enjoy all human rights and functional freedoms.
H. UN MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS
(MDGS)

• It encourages collaborative action to address

development problems that impacts lives of
the poor and marginalized sections of the
society, by reducing poverty, improving health,
increasing educational opportunities and
addressing environmental concern.
2. NATIONAL LEGAL
INSTRUMENTS

A. The Ethiopian
• The Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE)
Constitution
under article 41 sub-articles no.3 and no.9 clearly stipulates:
• The rights of citizens to equal access to publicly funded services
• The State shall, within available means, allocate resources to provide
rehabilitation and assistance to the physically and mentally disabled, the
aged, and to children who are left without parents and guardians.
• Under article 9 (4), it is also indicated that all international agreements
ratified by Ethiopia are an integral part of the law of the land. Not only that,
article 13 elaborates that all legislative, executive and judicial organs have
the responsibility to respect and enforce what is embodied under that
section, which should be done in conformity with human rights
considerations.
 B) THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING
POLICY(1994)

• under its specific objectives sub-item, 2.2.3 unequivocally states that

persons with disabilities and the gifted learn in accordance to their
potential and needs.
• under sub-items 3.2.9, 3.4.11 and 3.7.6 underlines that there will be
special education and training for persons with special needs, teacher
training for special education will be provided in regular teacher
training programs and special attention will be given in the
preparation and utilization of support input for special education
respectively
• According to the Higher Education Proclamation No.650/2009 article
40 item one, states that institutions shall make, to extent possible,
their facilities and programs amenable to use with relative ease by
physically challenged students.
C. EDUCATIONAL STRUCTURE
NO. 2 2.3

• Confirms that efforts will be made to

enable people with special needs /both
with disability and the Gifted/ learn in
accordance with their potential and
needs.
 D. HIGHER EDUCATION
PROCLAMATION
NO.650/2009

Article 40, item1 states that institutions

shall make, to the extent possible, their
facilities and programs are easy to use
by physically challenged students.
 E. THE SPECIAL NEEDS
EDUCATION PROGRAM
STRATEGY (2006)
The key elements of the strategy are:
• Favorable policy environment
• Duties & responsibilities in education system
• Using strengthening national expertise
• Allocation and use of funds
• Cooperation and partners
• School management
• Teacher education
 F. EDUCATION SECTOR
DEVELOPMENT /ESDP IV/

Expected program outcomes

• Enrollment of children with special educational needs
increased at all levels of education and due attention
will be given to girls with special needs
• Number of trained teachers in SNE/ inclusive
education increased
• Capacity of schools in addressing the academic and
social needs of children with special educational needs
improved
 G. BUILDING CODE
(ARTICLE) 624/2009

• Even if the code was declared for the

convenient of physical accessibilities in
architectural activities still the problem
is not minimized.
 H. PROCLAMATION ON THE
RIGHTS OF DISABLED
PERSONS TO EMPLOYMENT
• Proclamation No. 101/1994 states about the right of
PWD to appropriate training, employment opportunities,
salary, selection criteria, grievance procedure…
• PWD have the right to employment. It was considered as
any law, practice, custom, attitude or other
discriminatory situations that impair the equal
opportunities of employment of a disabled person are
illegal.
• It also requires employers to provide appropriate
working and training conditions; take all reasonable
 I. THE FEDERAL CIVIL SERVANT
PROCLAMATION NO. 515/2007
(የመንግስት ሠራተኞች አዋጅ)

• In this proclamation of article 13.1 and

13.3b, people with disabilities are the
one to be given preference during
recruitment, promotion and deployment;
and shall be no discrimination among
job seekers or civil servants in filling
vacancies because of their disabilities.
CHAPTER SIX
RESOURCES MANAGEMENT FOR
INCLUSION

Provisions of
Resources
• The resource should be considered for
people with disabilities in workplaces, social
gatherings, recreational and in schools that
help them to feel comfortable, secure and
work at their independent and team
activities.

• Available resources those meet their needs

 RESOURCES FOR
SCHOOL CHILDREN
• All concerned bodies should be
inclusive in their planning, budgeting
and taking action for the education of
persons with disabilities.

• In the school settings resource rooms

are very important.
SCHOOL BASED RESOURCE
ROOM
• The resource room is a classroom where a special
education program can be delivered to a student with
a disability and learning difficulty.

• It is for those students who belong to a regular class

but need some special instructions in an individualized
or small group setting for a portion of the day.

• It is typically a large room in the main school building

with lots of facilities for children with special needs.
HUMAN RESOURCES IN
SCHOOLS
• Sign language interpreter

• Braille specialist

• Mobility and orientation expert

• Special needs educators

• Speech and language therapist

• Physiotherapist

• Behavioral therapists etc.

SCHOOL BASED MATERIAL
RESOURCES
 LCD and/or Smart Board
 E – Chart
 Various magnifying lenses
 Slate and styles
 Perkins Braille writer
 White Cane
 Blind folder
 Tuning fork
 Audiometer
 Hearing aids (various type)
 Various instructional videos related this
unit
 Braille atlases
 Molded plastic, dissected and un-
dissected relief maps
 Relief globs
 Land form model
 Abacus
 Raised clock faces
 Geometric area and volume aids
 Braille rulers
 Raised-line check books
 Signature guide
 Script letter – sheets and boards
 Talking calculator
 Closed-circuit television
 Computer software for various students
with special needs
 Orthosis
 Prosthesis
ENVIRONMENTAL
ACCESSIBILITIES

Ramps
Elevators
Wheel chairs
 ACCOMMODATIONS

Accommodations are adjustments that

teachers and school personnel make to
maximize learning and social well-being
for individual students.
INSTRUCTIONAL
ACCOMMODATION
CHECKLIST
 Use a multisensory approach.
 Use a highly structured format for presentations.
 Use graphic organizers.
 Present material in small, sequential steps.
 Teach specific strategies (e.g. taking notes, reading
comprehension).

 Review key points frequently.

 Assign a buddy reader or note taker.
 Use color coding to match materials and
concepts.
 Reduce visual distractions.
 Seat student close to board, teacher, or
student helper, away from door or window.
 Provide a quiet work area.
 Allow students to move if needed.
 Use visual reminders as memory aids.
 Use teacher-initiated signals for redirecting
attention.
 Highlight sections of text.
 Provide tape recording of lecture or
required texts.
 Give oral and written directions.
 Speak slowly and clearly.
 Allow for longer response time.
 Organization and Task Completion
 Keep work area clear.
 Post assignments and work completed in
a consistent spot.
 Assist student with notebook
organization.
 Use assignment notebook.
 Extend time to complete
assignments.
 Shorten or chunk assignments.
 Give timeline for longer projects.
 Give specific feedback.
 Provide peer tutoring.
 Use cooperative learning groups.
 Provide structured daily activities.
 Explain changes in routine.
 EVALUATION
• Explain grading and give rubric.
• Give specific feedback.
• Preview before test; give frequent quizzes; give sample
questions.
• Orient student to test format.
• Use a clear, uncluttered copy; enlarge print.
• Make test directions simple and clear.
• Provide ample space for answers on test.
• Allow alternate test response (oral, computer).
• Read test aloud to student. Give open-note or take-
RESOURCES FOR
WORK/SOCIAL
ENVIRONMENT
Human Resources

• Special needs educator at every

organization to create inclusive
environment.

• Sign language interpreter.

• Sighted guide.
MATERIAL
RESOURCES
• Various magnifying lenses

• Slate and styles

• Perkins Braille writer

• White Cane

• Hearing aids

• Sign language books and videos

• Braille atlases

• Braille rulers
• Signature guide
• Talking calculator
• Talking mobile
• Closed-circuit television
• Computer software for various students with special needs;
for example Jaws for blind and sign language software for
deaf
• Orthosis
• Prosthesis
• Environmental accessibilities
Ramps
Elevators
Wheel chairs
 CHAPTER SEVEN
COLLABORATIVE (COOPERATIVE)
PARTNERSHIPS WITH
STAKEHOLDERS

Definition of collaboration, partnership and stack

holder
• The act of working together to produce or create
something according to the capacities and abilities
of individuals. Each individual‘s collaboration is
based on his/her knowledge and skills.

• Collaboration means to work with another person

or group in order to achieve accomplish intended
goals.
 Collaboration provides every
team member with equal
opportunities to participate
and communicate their ideas.
 Collaboration in the workplace
is when two or more people
(often groups) work together
through idea sharing and
thinking to accomplish a
 KEY ELEMENTS OF
SUCCESSFUL
COLLABORATION
The relationship includes a commitment to:

• Mutual relationships and goals.

• A jointly developed structure and shared
responsibility.

• Mutual authority and accountability for

success.

• Sharing of resources and rewards.

FOUR MOST IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF
TEAMWORK TO HELP YOU BUILD A TEAM THAT
WILL LEAD YOUR COMPANY TO SUCCESS.

Respect
Communication
Delegation
Support
HERE ARE A FEW
QUALITIES THAT A
SUCCESSFUL TEAM
POSSESSES.
1. They communicate well with
each other.
2. They focus on goals and results.
3. Everyone contributes their fair
share.
4. They offer each other support.
5. Team members are diverse.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF
COLLABORATION
Establish clear common goals for the
collaboration.
Define your respective roles and who
is accountable for what
Take a problem-solving approach
Establish an atmosphere of trust and
mutual respect for each other’s expertise.
Aim for consensus decision-making.
 Give credit to others for their ideas and
accomplishments.
 Develop procedures for resolving conflicts
and manage these processes skillfully.
 Better still, anticipate possible conflicts
and take steps to avoid them as far as
possible.
 Arrange periodic meetings to review progress
in the collaborative arrangements.
WHAT ARE THE
ADVANTAGES OF
COLLABORATION?
• Higher employee productivity
• The advantages of collaboration can also
be seen in terms of individual output.

• Creating a sense of teamwork and building

bonds encourages team members to work
for the collective rather than just
themselves.
 BENEFITS OF
COLLABORATION

 Greater efficiency and less duplicated effort.

 Access to additional resources or lower costs
through sharing resources such as office space,
administration

 Improved service coordination across agencies,

with better pathways or referral systems for
service users.
CHALLENGES TO TEAM
COLLABORATION

 Indecisive decision-makers.
 "E-fail" This is a little term used for when
email straight up fails. ...

 Mis (sing) communication.

 Process sinking vs. process syncing.
 Too many cooks.
 Negative Nancy.
 COOPERATIVENESS

• Describes working together agreeably for a

common purpose or goal as in cooperative
play or cooperative employee.

• A cooperative is a jointly- owned business

or enterprise where members pool their
resources to purchase, do work, and/or
distribute things.
Cooperativeness helps individuals to willing learn
from each other. Learners work together in small
groups, helping each other to carry out individual
and group tasks. Interdependence: all group
members seek to achieve a group goal and help
each other’s’ achievement; Individual
accountability: each member of the group is held
responsible for his or her own learning, which in
turn contributes to the group goal; Cooperation:
the learners discuss, problem-solve and
collaborate with each other; Face to face
interaction and establish consensus; and
Evaluation: members of the group review and
FORMS OF INTERDEPENDENCE, WHICH
CAN HELP TO CREATE INCLUSIVENESS:

• 1. Goal interdependence: the group has a

single goal.
• 2. Reward interdependence: the whole group
receives acknowledgement for achieving the
goal
• 3. Resource interdependence: each group
member has different resources (knowledge
or materials) that must be combined to
complete a task
STEPS TO WORK EFFECTIVELY
TOGETHER

• 1. Have clear objectives

• 2. At each stage you should try to agree on goals
• 3. Set ground rules
• 4. Communicate efficiently
• 5. Build consensus
• 6. Define roles
• 7. Clarify your plans, process and achievements all the time
• 8. Keep good records
• 9. Stick to the plan