Part II:

Program design and

development

Belay Tefera
School of Psychology
College of Education and Behavioral Studies
 Remarks

Program design is the process that an organization uses to

develop a program.
It follows the following steps:
1. Conducting a needs assessment
2. Engaging stakeholders
3. Understanding the program context
4. Ensuring a program is evidence-based
5. Designing the program
6. Piloting the program
7. Program implementation
8. Ensuring quality and ongoing relevance
9. Scaling up a program
 Contents
I. Preparation for Designing a program
1. Conducting a needs assessment
2. Engaging stakeholders
3. Understanding the program context
4. Ensuring a program is evidence-based
II. Program development
5. Designing the program
6. Piloting the program
III. Program roll out
[Link]
[Link] quality and ongoing relevance
[Link] up a program
Preparation
1. Conducting a needs assessment
 Once problems have been identified and defined, they have to
be translated into needs that are to be addressed through the
planning process.
 Need is not only difficult to define but, once defined, difficult to
measure.

 Need refers to any identifiable condition which limits a person

or individual, or a family member in meeting his or her full
potential.
 Needs are usually expressed in social, economic or health
related concerns
Needs are the concerns to be addressed, gaps to be filled…
Needs assessment – a type of evaluation that is conducted to
determine:
 the concerns to be addressed, or existing gaps
 the contexts, settings, and situations of participants
 resources available, stakholders involved,

 Preparation

Four types of [Link]

Normative
Perceived
Expressed
Relative
Why is it important to conduct a needs
assessment? Reasons for Conducting a
Needs Assessment

Avoid duplication as a successful program

may already exist or be underway.
Understand the full complexity of needs
Understanding the assets and strengths of
the particular population
Develop programs that better fit the
target population
To prioritize the needs for services and
help with resource allocation.
To determine whether other interventions
and resources to address the problem
exist.
To determine whether existing
interventions are known to or are
acceptable to potential clients.
To determine if there are barriers
preventing clients from accessing existing
services.
To obtain information for tailoring a
program to a specific target population.
Steps in conducting a needs assessment

1 Plan the needs assessment

 Determine the purpose of the needs assessment.

 Formulate needs assessment questions:
 What are the population needs?
 What programs are already being provided?
 What is the gap between needs and programs?
 What is the best program to fill that gap?
 Determine data sources that will provide information related to the needs assessment
questions including existing information and new data.

2 Collect and analyze information

 Secondary information is usually obtained from documents and the literature.

 Qualitative data is obtained from interviews, stories, photo-voice, and focus groups. It is
analyzed by looking for trends or patterns in the responses.
 Quantitative data is obtained from surveys, administrative data and observation. It is
analyzed in order to look at numbers, averages, percentages and trends.
 Interviews obtain information from open-ended questions in a one-on-one situation.
 Focus groups obtain information from open-ended questions in a group situation where
dynamic discussion can occur.
 Surveys usually ask close-ended questions. Most surveys are done on-line although paper
or telephone surveys are possible.
 Photo-voice, story-telling, community participatory statistics, administrative and
monitoring data bases are other methods to collect relevant information about the need for
a program.
3 Interpret the data
 Once the data is analyzed the information
is organized by the questions that the
needs assessment highlighted.
Patterns should emerge, with consistency
across the different sources of data.
 Any divergence that occurs needs to be
explored to understand why the
differences exist.
 Preparation
2. Engaging stakeholders
Stakeholders – any group that has an interest in a
program and would be affected in some way by a
program including program participants, funders, staff
and other community agencies serving the same
populations or providing similar services.

Engaging stakeholders ensures your program

design and development process has received
input from those who will be directly involved in
delivering the program or those most affected by
the program.
Stakeholder engagement is about understanding
the priorities, concerns and perspectives of
different program users. This information is used
to plan, communicate and improve all aspects of
the program.
Who are the program stakeholders?

Stakeholders are usually categorized in three

ways:
Primary stakeholders are people with the
greatest connection to the program. This
includes program users and staff;
Secondary stakeholders may include
program funders, sponsors and partners;
and
Indirect stakeholders include community
members and organizations that may have
some level of connection to the program or
are impacted by it in some indirect way.
 Why engage stakeholders?

 Engaging stakeholders increases the likelihood that your

program will be successful. By using the information gathered
from various stakeholders, program design and development
becomes responsive and therefore more credible in the eyes of
its users.

 We engage stakeholders to:

■Better understand the perspectives of potential users and

implementers of the program;
■Gain support for the program;
■Ensure the program is coordinated with similar programs;
■Help understand the program context;
■Develop a program that is relevant for the particular context;
■ Improve program results by directly involving the people who
will be using the program; and
■Manage risks related to potential program aversion or weak
community support.
Steps in engaging stakeholders

[Link] stakeholders: List individuals and groups who

may be affected by the program, are necessary to
implement the program, or will use the evaluation
findings.
[Link]: It is not always practical or appropriate to
involve all stakeholders in every step of the design and
development process. Consider the benefits and
drawbacks of involvement, as well as available time and
resources.
[Link] a strategy: Consult with high priority
stakeholders about the best way to make use of their
expertise. A steering committee is one way to achieve
this. Think about how secondary and indirect stakeholders
need to be involved.
[Link] stakeholders: Put your stakeholder engagement
strategy into action. Check-in regularly to ensure your
strategy is useful and feasible.
 Preparation
3. Understanding the program
context
Context– the broader organizational, social, economic, and political
environment in which a program operates. This includes program
relationships, capacity, and other factors outside of the control of the
program. Some contextual factors include community needs and
assets, community economic, social and demographic characteristics,
governmental policy, and the presence of similar or complementary
programs.
Programs are designed and developed within a set of particular
circumstances that influence key decisions and program
outcomes. The program context is shaped by “contextual
factors”, which may be fixed or fluid. Understanding the
context in which a program is situated provides critical
information about community functions, expectations,
challenges, desires, history and needs. This information, in
turn, helps program designers to plan accordingly.
Learning about contextual factors can also help to connect with
other programs and exploration of potential collaboration.
This is particularly important during times of funding restraint
and unpredictability.
Key contextual factors which affect the design and use of a program include:

■ Community diversity and culture – a program for people with disabilities would need to take into
account the accommodation needs of participants. Because such needs vary, it is best to have a
procedure of asking all participants if there is anything that they require in order to participate fully
in the program.
■ Physical environment – this includes things like how welcoming a setting is, whether it is in a
location that is non-stigmatising, or how easily it can be reached by public transit.
■ Socio-economic profile of the community – a person’s income can make a difference in whether
she/he can pay for a service or not.
■ Demographic profile of the community – factors like the age and gender of potential participants
contributes to decisions regarding size and focus of a program.
■ Availability of similar programs – other programs being available may lead to decisions about
cross-agency collaboration and size of the program. For example, if a similar program exists but only
provides co-ed programming and your organization specifically serves girls, a collaborative effort
combining the other organization’s knowledge about the particular program and your organization’s
knowledge about programming for girls may work best.
■ Political climate and policy direction – the priorities of the current government as well as policy
direction will need to be considered. For example, a children’s mental health program may need to
take into account the most recent government policies.
■ Funding availability – this is directly affected by the political climate and policy direction. Most
governments and other funding agencies have priorities. These differ across funding agencies. It is
important to match your fundraising efforts with a funder that has similar priorities to yours.
■ Community readiness – your organization may recognize a need for a program, but if the
community’s focus is different, the program is unlikely to be used. For example, a community with
recent violent deaths will likely be focused on community safety and may not see the connection to
the creation of supportive housing within the community.
■ Organizational structure and capacity – an organization needs to have the infrastructure and
expertise to support a new or scaled-up program. For example, a program aimed at a particular
ethnic or cultural group should have knowledge and experience with that group. A new program
should not be larger than the organization supporting it.
Steps in understanding context

[Link] relevant contextual factors – as part of your

needs assessment process and throughout the life of the
program, make a list of all the factors that may have an
impact on the program. This might be done through a
brainstorming session or through interviews with
stakeholders. Try to prioritize factors that have the greatest
potential for impact on the program. Some key questions
that can be asked in order to gain a better understanding of
program context include:
■ What is the history of existing related programs?
■ What is the community socio-economic and cultural profile?
■ Does the organization have the capacity to deliver the
program?
■What are the current government’s priorities and policy
directions?
■How available is funding and from where?
■What are the community’s or target population’s priorities?
■Who are potential community partners?
2 Collect and analyze important contextual
information – develop a manageable way to collect
contextual information. Focus groups, stakeholder
interviews and some basic online research can elicit
valuable [Link] context information chart or
checklist can be effective in collecting and organizing
data. In the analysis, try to identify major areas of
concern, patterns, and key themes that highlight
contextual factors. Use tools that help you analyse the
information you have gathered. There are many charts or
diagrams that help you sort out where your advantages
are, where your challenges lie, who is likely to help you,
who will be neutral and who might disagree with your
approach. Typical tools are a SOAR chart (strengths,
opportunities, aspirations and results) or ORID
(objective, reflective, interpretive, and decisional). It is
important to consider what leverage you have, what
advantages you can gain and how can you maximize the
situation.
3 Incorporate relevant factors into
the planning process – sharing
contextual information with program
designers and implementers in a
timely manner is crucial to program
success. This can be done via a summary
report or during a steering committee
meeting. The goal of the report is to
provide useful information that illuminates
contextual factors that may impact
program delivery.
4. Ensuring a program is
evidence-based

 Evidence – information that is presented to support or

counter an assertion. Evidence can range from examples
that demonstrate a point to information resulting from
rigorous evaluation or research. Evidence is used to
support the selection and implementation of program
design elements.

 While some funders support innovation, increasingly

there is pressure to develop programs that have
been shown to work – programs that are evidence-
based. This does not mean that new and innovative
programs should not be considered, but they too
should refer to existing evidence and be based on a
sound theory that indicates why the program will
work in the particular context.
Preparation
What is evidence-based?

Programs, or particular activities within a program,

that have been found to be effective based on
the results of ongoing monitoring and program
reporting or rigorous evaluation are generally
considered to be evidence-based.
A program is evidence-based if:

■ Research shows the program produces the

expected results; or
■ The program is shown to contribute to the
expected results; or
■Particular program activities have been shown to
produce or contribute to the expected results.

What are possible sources of
evidence?

■Agency history with similar programs;

■Program evaluations from your own or
other agencies;
■Systematic evidence reviews; and
■Research on emergent, promising or best
practices.
Steps for finding the evidence

1. Search for what has been written and researched about the type of
program you are interested in – use key words that describe the type of
program you want to develop. Start with a simple internet search
engine, and widen your search to include on-line research databases
(e.g. libraries, topic-related research websites) if necessary.
2 Look at websites of existing programs – this will provide basic
information about the program and may include recent evaluations.
3. Talk to the people who are implementing the program – ask the
following questions, getting as precise information as possible:
■ What are the intended outcomes of the program for its clients?
■ Who does the program serve?
■ What are the key program activities?
■ What approach is used in offering program activities?
■ How do you know that your program is achieving the intended
outcomes?
■ To what extent have those outcomes been achieved?
■ In what ways could the program be improved?

4 Focus on monitoring reports and evaluations that show how well the
program is working.
Formula for Success

Effective program design

+
Effective Implementation
+
Enabling Context
=
Increased likelihood of positive results
5. Designing the program
Once you determine the need for a
program or to redesign an existing
program, understand the context in
which the program is to be delivered
and found a program – or key
elements of a program – you think
will work, you need to take all of that
information and design a program.
This could mean adopting, adapting,or
developing a new program
Designing a program therefore
requires making a series of decisions
Designing a program requires making a series of decisions
Select the program
[Link] the objectives of the Discard the
program similar to ours? No program
Yes
[Link] the program serving a Adapt the
similar population to ours? No program
yes
[Link] the other program context Adapt the
similar to our program? No program
yes
[Link] we have similar resources? No Adapt the
program
yes

Adopt the program

Adopting a program to fit your context

 If the answer to the questions is ‘yes’ all the way through, then simply
adopt the original design.
 This a fairly straight-forward process that requires monitoring to ensure
that the implementation is consistent with the existing program and that
the program really is producing the intended outcomes.

Adapting a program to fit your context

 Because there are so many programs already available, most

organizations adapt a program rather than designing a completely new
program.
 Adapting a program is more complex than adopting a program. It
requires additional thought and planning, including the need to:
■A good understanding of the core principles of the program;
■A good understanding of the population to be served and the context;
■Creativity and innovation;
■Ability to engage in real time learning and adjusting to that learning;
■Willingness to make compromises to reduce costs, if needed; and
■Learning as the program is being adapted.
Steps to adapting a program

1 Develop your program logic model or theory of change so that you know what
elements are core to the program and how the inputs, activities and outputs
link to the intended outcomes.

2 Determine what elements are not likely to be used by your target population
and eliminate them (e.g. you know from experience that your population does
not want to be singled out in a school setting).

3 Determine what new elements are needed to support your target population
(e.g. you know from experience that your population frequents the community
centre and will meet program staff there).

4 Determine what elements do not fit your context (e.g. a need for vehicles for all
staff in order to travel long distances).

5 Determine additional elements that are needed to adapt to your context (e.g.
provision of public transportation passes/tokens to support participants’
participation).

6 Determine resources – money, staffing, volunteers, in-kind services, etc. – and

assess what can be eliminated, if needed. This would be any of the elements
that are not core to the program (e.g. if most participants are within a five block
radius, then a support for transportation could be reduced).
SWOT analysis can be employed in
adopting, and adapting exisiting
programs; analyzing the:

◦ S=Strengths
◦ W=Weakness
◦ O=Opportunities, and
◦ T= Threats
Designing a new program
Designing a new program is complex and should only be undertaken
if adapting an existing program does not meet the needs of the
target population.
The steps are similar to adapting a program, but it requires a much
higher level of creativity and innovation.
Piloting a new program will determine whether it really is the right
solution.
Developing a program logic model
Whether you are adopting, refreshing,
adapting or designing a new program,
a logic model is a systematic and visual way
to present the relationships among the
◦ available resources to operate the program,
◦ planned activities and
◦ changes or results that the program is hoping
to achieve.
Itprovides a means for thinking through and
recording what is expected or desired at
different points in time in the ‘life’ of a
program.
•The logic model can be useful in helping the
practitioner establish a context for incorporating
theory into the planning process

•The purpose of the logic model is to depict the

sequence of events that:

• identifies program resources,

• matches them to needs,
• activates the service process,
• completes the service process, and
• measures results.
Logic [Link]

See the sequence depicted in

Figure 1.1 .
what a program logic model does in designing and
developing a program better. See an example of a logic
modelfor Clean Hands program
Certain If you If you If you If these benefits
resourc have accomplish accomplish to participants
es are access your planned your planned are achieved,
needed to activities, activities, and then certain
to resource then you will deliver the changes
operate s, then hopefully intended to organizations,
your you can deliver the services or communities or
progra use amount products, systems might
m them to of product or then your be
accompli service that participants expected to
sh your you will benefit in occur
planned intended certain ways
activities
Reso
urce/ Activit Outputs Outcomes Impact
input ies
1 2 3 4 5
Your planned work your intended effects
Although logic models can take many shapes
and forms, the example on the following page
is a logic model that might be developed for
the Head Start Program described in
Backgrounder 12 of this document. Note that
arrows are used to show linkages. In some
cases only one activity leads to a single
specific output while in some cases it requires
more than one activity to lead to an output.
As in this case, it usually requires a
combination of activities and outputs to
achieve the intended outcomes. Logic models
should always include a narrative that further
explains the linkages.
6. Piloting the program
A pilot project is a small scale
implementation of a program over a
set period of time. Pilot projects use
robust monitoring and evaluation
processes to test whether a
hypothesis or model is effective at
addressing a specific issue and to
determine how the model works in
the real world. It is a time where
program elements are tested and
adapted to the context.
When to pilot

A program should be pilot tested when:

■It is a completely new program; or

■It is an adaptation of a program that has
been implemented elsewhere; or
■There are significant changes to a
program you are already operating.
How to pilot

Piloting a program is similar to rolling out a program, only on a smaller scale. It involves the
following steps:

1 Ensure that the logic of the program is fully developed with detailed explanations of the
objectives and outcomes and how the activities and outputs link to those objectives and
outcomes.

2 Develop an implementation plan that sets out the activities of the program, who is responsible
for carrying out the activities, the outputs that are a result of those activities and the timelines
for carrying out the activities and achieving the outputs. The implementation plan should
include a process for monitoring the achievement of the desired outputs as well as intended
outcomes. This plan should serve as the basis for program delivery.

3 Develop an evaluation plan that looks at whether the program is being implemented as
planned, whether it is being efficiently implemented, that it collects baseline data about the
program participants and that it measures changes in the participants that occur as a result of
the program.

4 Determine the resources needed for the pilot including funding, staffing and evaluation costs.
Ensure the funds are secured.

5 Recruit and hire the initial staff based on the program design (e.g. one manager and one staff
per an appropriate number of participants) and the budget. This requires the development of
job descriptions and recruitment activities, such as posting jobs, short-listing candidates and
selecting the most suitable candidate.
6 Orient staff so they have a full understanding of the logic and intent of the
program, their roles and responsibilities related to the program and the
evaluation. It is essential that staff understand the guiding principles, the
core elements, and the program’s implementation plan.

7 Conduct limited outreach. Because the pilot program will be small,

outreach should focus on engaging participants who are representative of
the population to be served. This will allow exploration of the fit between
the program and potential participants.

8 Begin programming. Once there is staff, the activities of the program can
begin, whether it is designing materials, doing research or serving
participants.

9 Evaluation is crucial during the pilot phase. It is what will tell you if the
design of the program is appropriate, whether the design is being
implemented as planned and whether the program works in your particular
context. The evaluation should tell you whether you should go forward with
the program as is, make adjustments to the program or not roll it out at all.
If adjustments are needed, the evaluation should provide
recommendations for change.

10 If the program is feasible, adjust the design and implementation process,

if needed, and begin the process of rolling out the program.
What to do if you can’t pilot

If it is not possible or sensible to pilot a project, it

is still important to monitor the following:

■ Whether the program is being implemented as

planned (e.g. serving the intended population,
providing the program activities as intended);

■ Whether it is being provided efficiently (e.g.

ensuring overheads are reasonable, serving the
optimum number of participants); and

■The extent to which early outcomes are being

achieved.
Id No._________________
45 minutes
Answer all the questions

1. Mention as many strengths and weaknesss as possible regarding the

practicum interventions you attended last time.
2. Briefly describe preparation steps for program design; steps for program
development as well as program roll out separately.
3. Compare and contrast normative, perceived, expressed, and relative needs
4. Describe the three types of stakeholders with examples using the Kolfe
youth care and Rehabilitaion center as an example.
5. What are the importances of (a) conducting needs assessment, (b)
engaging stakeholders, (c) anlying program contexts, (d) evidence-basing
programs, (e) piloting programs and (f) scaling up programs?
6. What is the difference among program adoption, adaptation, and creation?
7. How do you compare SWOT analysis and logic model?
8. Assume you are to go out for your practicum course. Applying the principles
and guidelines of program design, discuss what activities you shall be doing
to get through your practicum successfully?

Test 2 (7%): Program design