S
INTRODUCTIO
N
Soil is the the biologically active,
porous medium that has developed in
the uppermost layer of Earth’s crust.
Soil is one of the principal substrata
of life on Earth, serving as a
reservoir of water and nutrients, as
a medium for the filtration and
breakdown of injurious wastes, and
as a participant in the cycling of
carbon and other elements through
the global ecosystem.
It has evolved through weathering
processes driven by biological,
climatic, geologic, and topographic
influences.
Soil provides the medium for plant
growth and is, therefore, the basis
for all land-based food chains.
FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL
FORMATION
Soil formation is affected by
many processes and influences.
These are:
1. Parent material
2. Topography/relief
3. Time
4. Climate
5. Biological activity
FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL
FORMATION
1. Parent rock
Parent rock is the original bedrock that decomposes to
form soils. The parent rock affects the depth, texture,
structure, permeability and fertility of the soil.
Soils that are mainly controlled by its parent rock
are called intrazonal soils.
However, young soils such as scree and alluvial soils
are mostly affected by its parent rock.
Remember, parent rock is broken down and
decomposed to form soil. If parent rock contains
minerals that are resistant to weathering, then
decomposition rates will be slow. Quartzite is an
example of a very hard minerals that makes the parent
rock resistant to physical and chemical weathering. In
this case, small stones and pebbles are produced.
Less resistant rock such as slates and phyllites are
soft and will have higher weathering and
decomposition rates.
Parent rocks that have cracks (known as cleavages)
will allow water and other agents of weathering to
enter and speed up weathering.
Polyminerallic rocks (many minerals present) will
have different rates of weathering and, therefore,
will be in different stages of development ( stones
with fine soil).
FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL
FORMATION
2. Topography
This refers to the height, elevation or
steepness of the land. Soils on slopes show
much variation due to the processes of
erosion, transport and deposition.
(a) Steep slopes have rapid drainage-
landslides cause an accumulation of
immature soils at the base of the slope
(b) Flat lowlands are waterlogged-forms
oxygen starved soils (mottles)
(c) Soil creep and overland flow will result
in wetter soils on the lower parts of the
slope which will become gentler due to
soil accumulation
A gentle slope where drainage is good but
erosion is limited is most suitable for
soils.
A soil catena shows the variation in soil
FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL
FORMATION
3. Time
The formation of soils from the
weathering and decomposition of bedrock
is a lengthy process that can take
centuries.
A mature soil has undergone all the
necessary processes and has developed
a permanent profile with all its different
layers (horizons).
Young soils are mainly alluvial soils that
are created from the deposition of
alluvium, glacial till or volcanic ash.
Sandy oils in humid regions can develop
in less than 200 years.
Mature soils in arid regions can take
thousands of years to form from
FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL
FORMATION
3. Climate
Soils controlled by climate are called zonal soils.
Temperature, wind as well as precipitation, evaporation
and humidity all affect soil formation.
(a) Rainfall and temperature affects weathering
rates as well as the amount of organic matter in
the soil. It also influences the movement of water
through the soil.
(b) Excess rainfall results in the leaching of minerals
and salts from the A horizon. This is called
eluviation and gives the A horizon a bleached,
white colour. The leached substances are deposited
in the B horizon in a process called illuviation.
These soils are called pedocals.
(c) Excess rainfall in in wet equatorial regions washes
away silica from the soils and deposits it into
streams. This is called desilication. A leached soil
(d) In arid (dry) climates, evaporation exceeds
rainfall which results in dry soils. Water containing
salts move upward into the surface through capillary
action. This water dries out leaving behind salts
which gives the soil a white residue. These soils are
FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL
FORMATION
4. Biological activity
Macro-
Macro- and micro-organisms aid in the organisms
recycling of nutrients in the soil. Macro- burrowing soil
organisms such as earthworms, ants and
termites dig burrows which bring soil from
the lower horizons to the upper horizons.
Collapsing burrows carries soil down to the lower
horizons.
Earthworms also help to aerate the soil.
Micro-
Micro-organisms include bacteria and fungi
organisms
which help to decompose dead plants and in the soil-
animals which helps to create humus bacteria
(humification) which gives soil a dark-brown or and fungi
black colour.
Humification also produces organic acids
which assist in the decomposition of parent
rocks.
FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL
FORMATION
Human actions
Human activity has large impacts on
soils.
(a) Ploughing helps to aerate soils
(b) Irrigation and drainage assists with
movement of water
(c) Fertilisers increase soil fertility
(d) Bad farming practices can result in
soil erosion and deadpan soils
(e) Good farming practices such as
contour ploughing can conserve soils
(f) Urbanisation and development can
destroy soils