IN1501 – Tutorial 04
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Data Transmission
• Approaches for conversion data to signal.
Data Signal Approach
Digital Digital Encoding
Analog Digital Encoding
Analog Analog Modulation
Digital Analog Modulation
Digital to Digital Conversion
• Digital data to digital signal conversion involves three techniques.
1. Line coding (Always needed)
2. Block Coding (May or may not be needed)
3. Scrambling (May or may not be needed)
Line Coding Characteristics
1. Number of signal Levels
Number of values allowed in a signal to represent
data.
Two voltage levels Three voltage levels
Line Coding Techniques
• Line coding techniques can be categorized into three categories.
Line Coding
Unipolar Polar Bipolar
NRZ & RZ
• Non return to Zero (NRZ)
• Return to Zero (RZ)
Unipolar
• Only two voltage levels are used. It uses only one polarity of voltage
level..
Pola
r
• Uses two voltage levels- One positive and other negative.
• There are four different encoding schemes.
Polar
Differential
NRZ RZ Manchester
Manchester
Polar NRZ encoding
scheme
• Two different voltage levels are used for two binary values.
• NRZ- L : Negative voltage value represents one value and positive
voltage value represents another value
• NRZ-I : No inversion if the next bit is 0. Inversion if the next bit
is 1
Polar RZ Encoding
Scheme
• The signal goes to zero in the middle.
• 1 : Half of the signal +V and the other half
0
• 0 : Half of the signal –V and the other half
0
Manchester and Differential Manchester
Coding
• Manchester Coding
• Transition is at the middle of each bit period.
• A binary 1 corresponds to a low-to-high transition and a binary 0 to
a
high-to-low transition in the middle
Logic 0: High to Low transition.
Logic 1: Low to High transition.
• Differential Manchester Coding
• Inversion in the middle of each bit is used for synchronization.
• The encoding of a 0 is represented by the presence of a transition both at
the beginning and in the middle
• The encoding of a 1 is represented by a transition only in the middle of
a bit period.
Logic 0: Transition at the start.
Logic 1: No transition at the start.
Manchester and Differential Manchester
Coding
Bipola
r
• Three voltage levels are used.
• Zero level is used to represent 0.
• 1’s are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
AMI Encoding
• Solves the issue of synchronization in Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ)
encoding.
• Uses alternating polarity to represent consecutive ones, avoiding
a DC bias.
Binary '0': Represented by a zero voltage level.
Binary '1': Alternates between positive and negative voltage levels.
Analog to Digital Conversion
• Analog data such as voice, video and music can be converted into
digital signals.
• The device used for conversion of digital data to analog and
vice
versa is called coder (coder-decoder).
• Two basic approaches
1. Pulse Code Modulation
2. Delta Modulation
Pulse Code Modulation
• There are three basic steps of Pulse Code Modulation.
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Line Coding
Pulse Code Modulation
• Sampling
• This process is based on the Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem.
• Number of samples are taken at regular intervals, at a rate higher than
twice the highest significant signal frequency
• According to the Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem, the sampling
rate must be at least 2 times the highest frequency contained in the
signal.
• This basic step is know as Pulse Amplitude Modulation(PAM)
• E.g. In order to sample voice data ranging from 300Hz to 4000Hz,
8000 samples should be taken per second.
Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem
states that the sampling rate must be at least twice the highest frequency
component of the signal's bandwidth.
Pulse Code Modulation
• Quantization
• PAM results series of pulses with amplitude values between the minimum
and the maximum amplitude values of the signal.
• The set of amplitudes can be infinite with non-integral values between the
two limits.
• These values cannot be used in encoding
Pulse Code Modulation
• Quantization - Steps
• Assume that original analog signal has instantaneous values between
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 and 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
The range between 2 values are divided into 𝐿 zones.
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 −
Range / Levels = +
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
1
• L = 2^n
where n is the number of bits used for coding.
To represent 63 levels, the smallest n that satisfies 2^n ≥ Range is calculated.
• Quantized values of 0 to 𝐿 − 1 are assigned to the mid points of each
[Link] approximate the value of the sample amplitude to the quantized
values
Pulse Code Modulation
Quantization Error
• Quantization process introduces an error called Quantization Error or
Quantizing Noise.
• Difference between sampled value and the quantized value.
• This error depends on step size.
• Use of uniform step size leads to poorer S/N ratio for small amplitude
signal.
• With the Higher quantization levels result in better
approximation and less quantization error.
Pulse Code Modulation - Limitations
• The PCM signal has high bandwidth.
• Consider a voice signal that contains frequencies from 0 Hz to 4000 Hz.
If
8 bit ADC is used for conversion to digital data, the data rate is:
Sampling rate = 2 × 4000 = 8000𝐻𝑧
𝐵𝑖𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 8 × 8000 = 64𝑘𝑏𝑝𝑠
• To overcome this problem a technique known as Differential
PCM (DPCM) can be used.
Transmission
Modes
• Transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished
in either parallel or serial mode.
• In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.
• In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick.
Data
Transmission
Seria
Paralle
l
l
Asynchrono Synchronou Isochronou
us s s
Parallel Transmission
• Binary data, consisting of 1s and 0s, may be organized into groups of
n bits each.
• By grouping, we can send data n bits at a time instead of 1. This is
parallel transmission.
• Simple mechanism is followed in parallel transmission
• n wires are used to send n bits at a time.
• Each bit has its own wire, and all n bits of one group can be transmitted
with each clock tick from one device to another.
Parallel Transmission
•𝑛 = 8
example
• Typically these wires are bundled in a cable with a connector at each
end
Parallel Transmission
• Advantages
• Transmission is faster. Parallel transmission can increase the
transfer
speed by a factor of n over serial transmission.
• Disadvantages
• Expensive. Parallel transmission requires n communication lines just to
transmit the data stream.
• Because of this, parallel transmission is limited to short
distances.
Serial Transmission
• In serial transmission one bit follows another, so that only
one communication line is required.
Serial Transmission
• The advantage of serial transmission over parallel is that with only
one communication line, serial transmission reduces the cost of
transmission over parallel by roughly a factor of n.
• Since the communication within devices is parallel, conversion
devices are required at the interface between sender and the
line (parallel to serial) and between the line and the receiver
(serial to parallel)
Serial Transmission – Asynchronous Transmission
• Timing of the signal is unimportant.
• Information is received and translated by agreed upon patterns. As
long as these patterns are followed, the receiving device can retrieve
information without regard to rhythm in which it is sent.
• Patterns are based on grouping the bit stream into bytes. Each group
is usually 8 bits, is sent along the link as a unit.
• The sending system handles each group independently, relying it to
the link when ever ready, without regard to a timer.
Serial Transmission – Asynchronous Transmission
• Without synchronization, the receiver cannot use timing to predict
when the next group will arrive. So, in asynchronous transmission
there should be a way to alert the arrival of new group.
• An extra bit, usually zero is added at the beginning of the each byte.
• This bit is called Start bit.
• Addition to that, another one or more extra bits are appended to the
end of the byte to alert the receiver that byte is finished. Usually this
bits are 1’s and called Stop bits.
• According to this method, the size of each byte is increased in size at
least 10 bits.
1 bits 8 bits 1 bits
Serial Transmission – Asynchronous Transmission
Serial Transmission – Asynchronous Transmission
• Advantages
1. Cheap
2. Effective
• Because of these two, this is an attractive choice of low-
speed communication.
• Disadvantages
• The addition of stop and start bits and the insertion of gaps into the bit
stream make asynchronous transmission slower than forms of
transmission that can operate without the addition of control
information
Serial Transmission – Synchronous Transmission
• Bit stream is combined into longer frames which contains multiple
bytes.
• Data are transmitted as an unbroken string of 1’s and 0’s and receiver
separates that string into bytes or characters that it needs to
reconstruct the information.
• If sender wishes to send data in separate bursts, the gaps between
bursts must be filled with special sequences of 0’s and 1’s that means
idle.
Serial Transmission – Synchronous Transmission
• The receiver counts the bits as they receive and group them into 8bits
units.
• As there are no indicators such as gaps, starting bits and stopping
bits, Timing is very important.
• The accuracy of the received information is completely dependent on
the ability of the receiving device to keep an accurate count of the
bits as they come in
Redundancy Percent
The redundancy percent measures the additional (non-data) bits as a
percentage of the total transmitted bits